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'(" $/ / ! ! %*' 0 % %!$' ! . !"' / & +%+ !1 79 (2015): 551 84 THE TEACHING OF DUNS SCOTUS ON WHETHER ONLY A GOD MAN COULD MAKE SATISFACTION FOR SIN WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF THIRTEENTH CENTURY FRANCISCAN THEOLOGY ANDREW V. ROSATO A T THE CENTER of St. Anselm’s understanding of re demption in is the notion that sin incurs a debt before God and that satisfaction is the payment of this debt. A person makes satisfaction by performing some good act that outweighs the evil of his sin. What is offered as satisfaction, moreover, must not already have been owed to God apart from the debt contracted by sin. In other words, making satisfaction requires the possibility of performing a supererogatory act. Anselm argues that only a God man is able to make satisfaction for human sin. The humanity of the God man furnishes him with the possibility of doing something supererogatory, since as sinless he was not obligated to undergo death. It is the divinity of the God man, however, that accounts for why his death possesses sufficient goodness to atone for sin. Great value attaches to Christ’s human death because it is the death of a divine person who possesses infinite dignity.1 After giving a lengthy exposition of Anselm’s , Duns Scotus argues in book III, distinction 20 of his 1 In 1.21 (Schmitt ed., 2:88 89), Anselm argues that the magnitude of sin’s debt exceeds what any mere creature could pay, and in 2.14 (Schmitt ed., 2:113 15) he explains how the death of the God man outweighs this debt. All references to are to , vol. 2, ed. F. S. Schmitt (Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson, 1946). 551 552 ANDREW V. ROSATO ! that God could have willed that a human person make satisfaction instead of God man, a instead of a . Scholars often explain Scotus’s disagreement with Anselm on this point by recourse to Scotus’s understanding of divine power. According to this interpretation, Scotus holds that it would have been incompatible with divine freedom and omnipotence for there to be only one way for him to will that satisfaction be made. Douglas Langston, for instance, writes: [Scotus] puts no restrictions on God’s choice. Since God is the one who determines what sacrifice is redemptive for mankind, God can choose any method of redeeming mankind. This emphasis on God’s unrestricted freedom of choice is, of course, in line with Scotus’ general endorsement of voluntarism. Since Anselm’s analysis would lead to a restriction of God’s freedom of choice, Scotus, as a voluntarist, must provide an analysis that differs from Anselm’s.2 Some scholars also claim that Scotus’s concern to highlight divine freedom in this context implies that God’s decision about how salvation is achieved is arbitrary, thus undercutting the intelligibility of the actual order of salvation. As Joseph Schwane writes, 2 Douglas Langston, “Scotus’ Departure from Anselm’s Theory of the Atonement,” " # 50 (1983): 227 41, at 240. For a similar view, see Luc Mathieu, “Était il nécessaire que le Christ mourût sur la croix? Réflexion sur la liberté absolue de Dieu et la liberté de Jésus homme, d’après Jean Duns Scot,” $% &'()*)(() + % )*, )(() # . )/, ed. Olivier Boulnois, Elizabeth Karger, Jean Luc Solère, and Gérard Sondag (Turnhout: Brepols, 2004): 581 91. Mathieu writes, “To imagine that there could not be other ways for God to redeem man is, for Duns Scotus, to restrict divine omnipotence radically. By what right could a created mind place limits on the divine will? That God has willed to save humanity in this way, no one could doubt, this is a fact, but this is a fact following from the divine will, which would have been able to make another choice” (“Imaginer qu’il n’y aurait pas pour Dieu d’autres moyens de racheter l’homme c’est, pour Duns Scot, singulièrement limiter la toute puissance divine. De quel droit une intelligence créée poserait elle des limites à la volonté divine? Que Dieu ait ainsi voulu sauver l’humanité, cela ne fait aucun doute, c’est un fait, mais c’est un fait conséquent à une volonté divine qui aurait pu faire un autre choix” [ibid., 583]). SCOTUS ON SATISFACTION 553 Duns Scotus, the father of the critical method in dialectic, metaphysics, and speculative theology, nowhere showed the dark side of that method more clearly than in the doctrine of salvation. He usually makes an appeal to the free will of God, and, after the collapse of speculative reasons, to the mysteries of the faith: this is what he does with the doctrine of salvation.3 It is true that Scotus’s understanding of divine power has some influence on how he approaches questions raised by the doc trine of redemption. Yet questions about what God could have willed with regard to salvation did not originate with him. Anselm himself raises questions about what aspects of God’s plan of redemption are necessary, and thirteenth century theologians following his lead frequently discuss which aspects of Christ’s redemptive work were necessary, fitting, or contingent.4 Scotus’s understanding of divine power is not the main reason why he differs from Anselm and others on the question of whether only a God man could make satisfaction for sin. In his commentary on distinction 20 of the third book of the 3 Joseph Schwane, 0 , tome 4, %# 1 , trans. l’Abbé A. Degert (Paris: Gabriel Beauchesne, 1903), 514: “Duns Scot, le père de la méthode critique dans la dialectique, la métaphysique et la théologie speculative, n’en a montré nulle part plus nettement les ombres que dans la doctrine du salut. Il lui arrive souvent de faire appel à la volonté libre de Dieu, et, après la faillite des raisonnements spéculatifs, au mystère de la foi: ainsi a t il fait pour la doctrine du salut.” Schwane’s writings are cited approvingly by Jean Rivière, the great historian of the doctrine of redemption, who, after summarizing Scotus’s teaching on Christ’s redemptive work, concludes, “Hence Scot [ ] does away with all intrinsic necessity and subordinates everything to God’s free will” Jean Rivière 2 3 0 , trans. Luigi Cappadelta [London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd, 1909], 106 7). In a similar vein, Adolf von Harnack writes, “Duns Scotus draws the true logical conclusion from the theory of satisfaction . . . by tracing everything to the ‘acceptatio’ of God. All satisfaction and all merit obtain their worth from the arbitrary estimation of the receiver. Hence the value of Christ’s death was as high as God chose to rate it” (Adolf von Harnack, 0 2 , vol. 6, trans. William M’Gilchrist, [Wipf & Stock, 1997, 3rd ed. (originally published 1903)], 196 97). 4 For an account of the ways in which understandings of divine power affect the Christology and soteriology of Anselm, the 0 , St. Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus, see Corey L. Barnes, “Necessary, Fitting, or Possible: The Shape of Scholastic Christology,” 4 5 (Eng. ed.) 10 (2012): 657 88. 554 ANDREW V. ROSATO , Scotus provides the following explanation for why he rejects Anselm’s claim: It seems that one pure man [ ] could have made satisfaction for all, if he would have been conceived without sin, just as he could have been . . . by the operation of the Holy Spirit and a mother (just as Christ was), and if God would have given him the highest grace that he could receive (just as he gave Christ), without any preceding merits, but from his liberality. Such a man could have merited the deletion of our sin.5 Rather than showing any concern that Anselm’s teaching conflicts with a proper understanding of divine omnipotence, Scotus argues from his understanding of how Christ was able to make satisfaction for the human race to the possibility that a human person could have done the same thing. In his com mentaries on distinctions 13 and 19 of book 3 of the , Scotus fills out the picture that he sketches here, but this passage already identifies the main factor that accounts for Christ’s ability to make satisfaction, namely, his possession of the highest grace that God could create. As Scotus makes clear elsewhere, grace gives rise to the infused virtue of charity, which allows a person’s actions to express love of God in a meritorious way.6 The degree of love that one expresses in one’s actions is primarily a result of the amount of grace that one possesses. By choosing to undergo suffering and death for our sake, Christ acts in accord with the highest grace and charity. As a result his suffering exemplifies unsurpassable love of God, and this is why it can serve as satisfaction for the debt incurred by human sin. 5 Duns Scotus, ! III, d. 20, q. 1, n. 33 (6 7 , vol. 21, ed. Barnaba Hechich et al. [Vatican City: Typis Vaticanis, 2004], 50): “Praeterea, videtur quod unus purus homo potuit satisfecisse pro omnibus, si fuisset conceptus sine peccato, sicut potuisset . . . operatione Spiritus Sancti et matris (sicut Christus fuit), et Deus dedisset sibi gratiam summam quam posset recipere (sicut dedit Christo), sine meritis praecedentibus, ex liberalitate sua, et talis potuisset meruisse deletionem peccati.” 6 See Duns Scotus, I, d. 17, p. 1, qq. 1 2 (7 , vol. 5, ed. Carolus Balić [Vatican City: Typis Polyglottis Vaticanis, 1959]). SCOTUS ON SATISFACTION 555 For Scotus it is a feature of Christ’s human nature (viz., his possession of the highest grace) that makes him able to pay the debt of sin, whereas for Anselm this is accomplished by a feature of his divinity (viz., the infinite dignity of his divine person). Scotus’s way of approaching the question of whether only a God man could make satisfaction speaks more directly to the concerns of his own near contemporaries than it does to Anselm’s way of approaching the question. For this reason our study will reconstruct part of the thirteenth century debate into which Scotus is inserting himself when he explores the connection between Christ’s created grace and his ability to make satisfaction. While Scotus does not cite any thirteenth century author by name when addressing this topic, we can look to the writings of St. Bonaventure, Peter of John Olivi, and Richard of Middleton to find examples of the positions that Scotus engages and modifies in the course of working out his own response to the question of whether only a God man could make satisfaction for sin. While several of Scotus’s Franciscan predecessors held that Christ’s created grace contributes to the redemptive value of his suffering, they nevertheless denied that God could have willed that a make satisfaction. Scotus’s thought develops in a new direction because he integrates the thirteenth century emphasis on the soteriological significance of Christ’s created grace with two other aspects of his theology, both of which had been rejected in the writings of his predecessors. First, although Scotus allows the Anselmian claim that in some sense the debt of sin is infinite and demands an infinite satisfaction, he explains this in such a way that it does not in principle remove the possibility that a human person could pay this debt. Second, Scotus denies that the hypostatic union made the human nature of Christ able to receive more grace than a human nature not assumed by a divine person. It is by working out the im plications of these two positions amidst the general agreement of thirteenth century theologians that Christ’s human nature— through its possession of created grace—contributes to his ability to make satisfaction that Scotus is lead to depart from his 556 ANDREW V. ROSATO predecessors on the question of whether only a God man could make satisfaction for sin. I. BONAVENTURE, PETER OF JOHN OLIVI, AND RICHARD OF MIDDLETON ON THE ROLE OF GRACE IN ACCOUNTING FOR THE VALUE OF CHRIST’S SATISFACTION In the thirteenth century many theologians thought of Christ’s making satisfaction for sin as a type of meritorious activity.7 The connection between satisfaction and merit is based on a certain way of understanding the debt of sin for which satisfaction is required. According to this view, the debt of sin requires that the one who makes satisfaction not only perform some good work that makes up for the evil of sin, but also that the person do something to bring about the repair or restoration of the good that was damaged by sin. This understanding of sin’s debt has roots in Anselm’s .8 In book 1, chapter 11, Anselm gives the example of someone who harms the health of another. The wrongdoer here has incurred two debts. He is obligated to restore the person’s health, but he is also obligated to do something for that person beyond this. To transpose this into the realm of salvation history we would say that sin incurs both the debt of repairing the damage that sin does to the human race and the debt of offering some additional good to God beyond this repair and restoration of man. Scholars debate whether Anselm held that satisfaction properly speaking only refers to the payment of the second debt,9 but for Scotus and many of his thirteenth century 7 For more on how Scotus and other thirteenth century theologians understand the relation between merit and satisfaction, see Andrew Rosato, “The Interpretation of Anselm’s Teaching on Christ’s Satisfaction for Sin in the Franciscan Tradition from Alexander of Hales to Duns Scotus,” 8 71 (2013): 411 44. 8 1.11 (Schmitt ed., 2:68). 9 For the claim that satisfaction proper consists only in the payment of the second debt, see John McIntyre, 0 3 " 97 2 : 0 ; (London: Oliver and Boyd, 1954), 76 77. For the judgment that Anselm views satisfaction as including the payment of both debts, see Brian P. McGuire, SCOTUS ON SATISFACTION 557 predecessors, Christ’s satisfaction was ordered to paying both debts. He is able to pay both of these debts in virtue of the superabundant value of his passion and death. Thinking of sin as incurring the debt of restoring the human race to God provides one way of raising the question of how Christ’s created grace might enable him to make satisfaction. Members of the human race are restored to God through the graces that Christ merits for them, and merit is possible when a person acts in accord with created grace, for when a person acts in accord with grace his actions take on a supernatural value that God has promised to reward.10 Yet since Christ pays both of sin’s debts by a single act, Scholastic theologians often ask about the role of his created grace in enabling him to make satisfaction, without limiting the role of grace exclusively to accounting for his ability to pay the debt of restoration. We will now examine what role St. Bonaventure, Peter of John Olivi, and Richard of Middleton accord to created grace in conferring redemptive value on the suffering and death of Christ. < 6 In his commentary on book III, distinction 20 of the , Bonaventure raises the question of whether a “pure creature” who possessed grace could have made satisfaction for the entire human race: One pure creature [ ] could infect the whole human race through his guilt. Therefore, if grace is the principle of making satisfaction, just as guilt is the principle of infecting others, it seems that a pure creature could make satisfaction for the entire human race through his grace.11 0 2 2 " = 2 (D.Phil thesis, Oxford 1970), 233. I wish to thank Brian McGuire for making a copy of his thesis available to me. 10 See, for example, Bonaventure, II ., d. 27, a. 2, qq. 1 3. 11 Bonventure, III , d. 20, a. 1, q. 3, obj. 1 (Quaracchi ed., 3:422a): “Una creatura pura potuit totum genus humanum inficere per culpam suam: ergo si gratia est principium satisfaciendi, sicut culpa principium inficiendi; videtur, quod aliqua pura creatura per suam gratiam potuerit satisfacere pro toto genere humano.” Quotations are 558 ANDREW V. ROSATO In order to explain why he rejects the conclusion of this argument, Bonaventure points to the dissimilarity between infecting the human race with guilt and making satisfaction for the human race. The guilt of original sin is passed on to others through the propagation of the human race, and therefore infecting others with the consequences of original sin is something within the powers of a human person. Making satisfaction for others, however, involves bringing about the spiritual regeneration of the human race, and this is not something within the powers of a mere creature, even though it is possible for rational creatures to possess grace to elicit meritorious acts through that grace.12 It is in distinction 13 of the same book that Bonaventure explains why no mere creature could be the source of spiritual regeneration for the human race. Here he argues that a special type of grace is required for this, namely, the grace of headship.13 According to Bonaventure, the spiritual regenera tion of the human race that Christ brings about by making satisfaction for sin has two components, both of which he accomplishes through his grace of headship. First, Christ merits from Bonaventure, + , , vol. 3 (Quaracchi: Collegium Sancti Bonaventurae, 1887). 12 Bonaventure, III ., d. 20, a. 1, q. 3, ad 1 (Quaracchi ed., 3:423b): “To that which is first objected, namely that a pure creature could infect the whole human race; it must be said that it is not similar: because some pure creature could be the source of the entire human race according to carnal propagation, through which the human race is corrupted and infected; but no pure creature could be the source of the human race according to spiritual regeneration” (“Ad illud quod primo obiicitur in contrarium, quod pura creatura potuit totum genus humanum inficere; dicendum, quod non est simile: quia aliqua pura creatura potuit esse principium totius generis humani secundum , per quam genus humanum corrumpitur et inficitur; sed nulla pura creatura potuit esse principium totius generis humani secundum ).” 13 Bonaventure, III ., d. 13, a. 2, q. 1, fund. 3 (Quaracchi ed., 3:283b): “It is the grace of headship ‘from whose fullness we have received’; but from the created grace of Christ we have received ‘grace for grace’—for he merited for all and he made satisfaction for all” (“Item, illa est gratia capitis, ; sed de gratia Christi creata accepimus —ipse enim omnibus meruit et pro omnibus satisfecit”). SCOTUS ON SATISFACTION 559 grace for the entire human race and by doing so makes grace available to sinners. Second, he is the very cause of that grace in those who partake in what he has merited for them. To account for how the grace of headship is the source for both aspects of spiritual regeneration, Bonaventure posits that the “grace of headship” refers in fact to two different graces, one created, the other uncreated.14 As an instance of uncreated grace, the grace of headship refers to Christ’s divine nature and the power he has in virtue of that nature to be the efficient cause of grace in others. As an instance of created grace, the grace of headship refers to the gift of habitual grace and charity bestowed upon Christ’s human nature through which he merits grace for other people. As human, Christ can merit grace for others, but it is insofar as he is divine that he is the efficient cause of this grace in others. According to Bonaventure, then, no human person could be the full cause of spiritual regeneration since no creature could be the efficient cause of grace and salvation. Yet it is still not evident why Bonaventure believes that it would have been impossible for God to will that a human person make satisfaction insofar as this consists solely in meriting grace for others. It seems as if bringing about that aspect of the spiritual regeneration of the human race could be within the powers of a human person, if God would grant him a sufficient amount of grace. Bonaventure provides an answer to this by arguing that Christ’s created grace belongs to a genus different from the genus to which the grace of other men 14 Bonaventure, III ., d. 13, a. 2, q. 1 (Quaracchi ed., 3:284b 85a): “Christ as man influences us through the mode of merit; Christ as God does so through the mode of efficiency; Christ as man influences us with respect to the remission of punishment, but Christ as God does so with respect to our guilt. Thus, influence in one way comes from Christ according to his created nature, in another way from his uncreated nature” (“influere per modum , Christi ; per modum 22 , Christi ; vel influere quantum ad remissionem , Christi , quantum ad remissionem , Christi . Et sic influentia uno modo respicit Christum secundum naturam , alio modo secundum naturam ”). For a discussion of the many dimensions of Christ’s grace, see Zachary Hayes, O.F.M., 0 3 6 (St. Bonaventure, N.Y.: The Franciscan Institute, 2000), 97 102. 560 ANDREW V. ROSATO belong.15 He points to the different possible kinds of union with God as a reason for distinguishing among the proximate genera into which different graces fall. The created grace of Christ makes his human nature able to be hypostatically united to the Logos, whereas the grace given to other rational creatures does not dispose them for this type of union. The different kinds of union that these graces make possible are, moreover, correlated with a difference in magnitude. According to Bonaventure, Christ’s created grace infinitely exceeds the created grace of any human person.16 The amount of grace that Christ receives will not be bestowed on any human or angelic person because the created grace conferred on Christ’s human soul is primarily for 15 Bonaventure, III ., d. 13, a. 1, q. 2, ad. 4 (Quaracchi ed., 3:280b): “To the objection that the finite does not exceed something finite except finitely, it must be said that this is true when both are in every way part of the same genus; for if they are not of the same proximate genus, it is false, as is clear in the case of a line infinitely exceeding a point, and the surface the line. The grace of Christ, however, disposes not only for enjoyment just as do other graces, but also for union. Hence, it is with respect to this that it can be considered an excess without measure because to be united with deity is a new and singular mode of the divine existence dwelling in a creature” (“Ad illud quod obiicitur, quod finitum non excedit aliud finitum nisi finite; dicendum, quod illud habet veritatem, quando omnino sunt euisdem generis; nam si non sunt eiusdem generis proximi, falsitatem habet, sicut patet, quod linea in infinitum excedit punctum, et superficies lineam. Gratia autem Christi non tantum disponit ad 2 , secundum quod aliae gratiae, verum etiam ad . Et hinc est, quod cum sit novus et singularis modus divinae existentiae et habitationis in creatura, quantum ad hoc potest attendi excessus sine mensura”). 16 Bonaventure, III ., d. 13, a. 1, q. 2 (Quaracchi ed., 3:279b): “If we speak about [Christ’s grace] in comparison to the grace of other men, then in this way it disproportionately exceeds it by reason of the union to the person of the Word, to which union that grace disposed the soul of Christ. For that grace on account of its highest union with the eternal Word had to infinitely surpass the grace of others in three ways: with respect to the power of the habit, with respect to its range of powers, and with respect to its effect” (“Si autem loquamur de ipsa ad gratias aliorum hominum; sic improportionabiliter excedit ratione unionis ad personam Verbi, ad quam unionem gratia illa disposuit animam Christi. Gratia enim illa propter coniunctionem summam cum Verbo aeterno habet excedere in infinitum, id est incommensurabiliter, gratias aliorum hominum tripliciter, scilicet quantum ad virtutum et quantum ad et quantum ad 22 ”). SCOTUS ON SATISFACTION 561 the purpose of making its assumption by the Logos fitting,17 even though secondarily it serves as the basis for meriting grace for the entire human race. While the role that Bonaventure accords to Christ’s created grace in his account of how Christ is able to make satisfaction goes beyond anything found in , Bonaventure also endorses a more Anselmian approach to the question of what confers redemptive value on Christ’s suffering and death. As he writes, The infinity of [Christ’s] merit arises from the union of his soul to the divine person—from which union not only a man, but also God is said to die—on account of which that merit is infinite, not by reason of his created grace in itself, but by reason of the infinite dignity of his person. Anselm wishes to say this, when he says that it is necessary for the one who is able to make satisfaction to be both God and man.18 However, the endorsement of Anselm aside, the way that the terms ‘merit’ and ‘satisfaction’ are treated as interchangeable is more characteristic of thirteenth century theology. Moreover, it is a testament to the soteriological importance that Christ’s created grace assumes by the time Bonaventure is writing that he explicitly denies in this passage that Christ’s created grace in itself accounts for the infinite value of his satisfaction. In other passages, Bonaventure will speak of Christ’s created grace as 17 Bonaventure, III , d. 13, a. 1, q. 1 (Quaracchi ed., 3:277b): “The soul would not be suited for being assumed by the Word, unless it were deiform and perfectly assimilated to God through grace: and therefore that that man is God does not exclude the deiformity of grace and glory, but rather presupposes it” (“nec anima esset idonea, ut assumeretur a Verbo; nisi esset deiformis et Deo assimilata perfecte per gratiam: et ideo hoc, quod ille homo est Deus, deiformitatem gratiae et gloriae , quin potius ”). Cf. Bonaventure III , d. 13, a. 1, q. 3 (Quaracchi ed., 3:282a b). 18 Bonaventure, III , d. 13, a. 1, q. 2, ad 3 (Quaracchi ed., 3:280a b): “infinitas meriti consurgit ex unione illius animae ad personam divinam—ob quam unionem non tantum homo, sed etiam Deus mori dicitur—propter quod meritum illud est infinitum, non ratione gratiae , sed ratione infinitae . Unde et hoc vult Anselmus dicere, cum dicit, quod oportuerit illum qui satisfacere posset, esse Deum et hominem.” 562 ANDREW V. ROSATO infinite in a certain sense and as underlying his ability to merit human redemption, but the passage above indicates that he holds that the infinite value of Christ’s satisfaction stems pri marily from his divinity rather than his humanity. In all of this Bonaventure is representative of much thirteenth century soteriology that gives more attention to how the gifts and powers of Christ’s human nature confer redemptive value on his suffering without jettisoning Anselm’s insistence that this is primarily accomplished by Christ’s divinity. 6< % 2> Peter of John Olivi follows Anselm in holding that the debt incurred by sin is infinite, and that therefore whatever is offered as payment for the debt of sin must be of infinite value. Olivi, however, tends to speak of Christ paying our debt by performing an infinitely meritorious act rather than using the category of satisfaction.19 Olivi explains that even though the meritorious act that Christ offers for human salvation is a finite human act in itself, it can properly be described as infinite in a certain sense. As we shall see, he claims that the infinite value of Christ’s merit comes from the following sources: the amount of created grace he possesses and the relation of his human and divine will in eliciting his meritorious suffering and death. Olivi compares the way that sin is infinite with one of the ways that Christ’s merit is rightly called infinite. Just as sin (and its debt) is not essentially infinite, but is called infinite to the 19 Peter of John Olivi, ? , q. 2, Biblioteca Franciscana Scholastica Medii Aevi 24 ed. A. Emmen (Grottaferrata: Collegium S. Bonaventurae, 1981), 103: “How [Christ] gave an equivalent, indeed more than an equivalent [for the debt of sin], depends upon a third principal, namely how the merit of Christ had a certain infinite transcendence both with respect to our guilt and with respect to the gifts and graces to be given to us.” (“Quomodo scilicet dederit aeqivalens, immo praevalens, dependet a tertio principali, quomodo meritum Christi habuit transcendentiam quodammodo infinitam, tam respectu culpae nostrae, quam respectu donorum et gratiarum nobis dandarum”). For one place where Olivi uses the category of satisfaction to analyze Christ’s redemptive work, see ? , q. 2 (Emmen, ed., 102 3). SCOTUS ON SATISFACTION 563 extent that it offends an infinite good and is worthy of an infinite punishment, so also Christ’s merit is not essentially infinite but rather is so to the extent that it is worthy of “an infinite acceptation and reward.”20 Christ’s meritorious acts are worthy of so great a reward in part because of the holiness of his human nature, which is an effect of created grace. The holiness of his soul confers unsurpassable value on his decision to suffer and die for the human race.21 20 Peter of John Olivi, ? , q. 2 (Emmen, ed., 105): “The second way it has an infinite relation, that is ‘to something infinite’ is as follows: just as an offense against God does not have an infinite essence, and is not founded on an infinite essence, but nevertheless is infinite to the extent that it offends an infinite good and is worthy of an infinite punishment, so also the merit of Christ is infinite to the extent that it is worthy of an infinite acceptation and reward” (“Secundus etiam modus habet relationem infinitam, id est ‘ad infinitum’: sicut enim Dei offensa non habet essentiam infinitam, nec fundatur in essentia infinita, sed tamen est pro tanto infinita, quia infinitum bonum offendit et quia est digna poena infinita: sic meritum Christi est pro tanto infinitum, quia est dignum acceptatione et remuneratione infinita”). 21 Peter of John Olivi, ? , q. 2 (Emmen, ed., 106): “You will not be astonished that not only according to the goodness of God, but also according to the natural goodness of men, that friendship, goodness, and nearness [to God] is able to merit more than the unfriendliness and wickedness of a stranger demerits. Whence, because of only one powerful request from a good and beloved son, the father is inclined to spare at any time the whole kingdom and the many failings of all the people in his kingdom” (“Nec de hoc mireris, quia non solum apud bonitatem Dei, sed etiam apud naturalem bonitatem hominum, plus valet amicitia vel bonitas et propinquitas ad merendum, quam extraneorum inimicitia et malitia ad demerendum. Unde pro sola una efficaci prece boni et dilecti filii inclinatur pater ad parcendum, etiam aliquando toti regno, et multis ac magnis excessibus totius multitudinis sui regni”). Consider also what Olivi writes here about how the unparalleled degree of Christ’s grace enables him to do something that outweighs our sins and merits grace for us: “There is a third way that [Christ’s merit] has the greatest transcendence over our guilt and the graces given to men. Just as the sun has a light transcending the light of innumerable fires and lamps, so also the charity and grace of the soul of Christ, al though finite, transcends all the good and evil habits of every infinite” (“Tertius etiam modus habet transcendentiam maximam super omnes culpas et gratias hominum. Sicut enim sol habet lucem transcendentem lucem innumerabilium ignium seu lucernarum, sic caritas et gratia animae Christi, quamvis sit finita, transcendit tamen omnes habitus bonos et malos omnium infinitorum” [? , q. 2, [Emmen, ed., 106]). 564 ANDREW V. ROSATO For Olivi, however, Christ’s created grace or any feature of his human nature is only of secondary importance for understanding the value of his redemptive merit. Following Anselm, Olivi affirms that the dignity of Christ’s divine person confers infinite value on his suffering.22 Yet he also claims that the divine will of Christ is the foundation for his infinite merit. Olivi writes: It [the divine will]—both inasmuch as it is in the person of the Word and as it is in the other persons of God—is the cause and principal mover of all the acts of Christ as man. What, therefore, is so astonishing if that best and most actualized will (inasmuch as it is in the person of Christ the man and his acts) is the fundamental basis of the merit of Christ?23 For Olivi, then, the role of Christ’s divine will in eliciting his meritorious acts explains the infinite value of his suffering. As we shall see in section IV, Duns Scotus will examine and critique the claim that Christ’s divine will could play a role in augmenting the value of his meritorious acts. 22 See Olivi, ? , q. 2 (Emmen, ed., 104): “If in others the dignity or sanctity of the person is the most notable circumstance or the basis of merits—whence one act of humiliation in a royal person or in an exceptionally innocent person is more praiseworthy and great and more worthy of reward by far than such an act in the case of a servile or impious person—it would be astonishing if this basis [for merit] were to be excluded in the man Christ” (“Si enim in ceteris dignitas et sanctitas personae est notabilissima circumstantia seu ratio meritorum—unde unus actus humilitationis in persona regia aut in persona innocentissima est longe laudabilior et grandi praemio dignior quam in persona servili et impia—mirabile esset quod in Christo homine haec ratio esset exclusa”). 23 Ibid.: “quae quidem tam prout est in persona Verbi, quam prout est in aliis personis Dei, est causa et motor principalis omnium actuum Christi hominis. Quid ergo mirum, si illa optima et actualissima voluntas, inquantum est persona Christi hominis et actuum eius, habet fundamentalem rationem meriti Christi?” For more on Olivi’s understanding of the relation between Christ’s divine and human wills, see Corey L. Barnes, = @ 3 2 + 7 0 - (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 2012), 294 99. SCOTUS ON SATISFACTION <" 565 2 In line with Bonaventure and Olivi, Richard of Middleton holds that Christ’s possession of the highest grace partly explains why his suffering and death is able to pay the debt of sin. Like his predecessors, Richard holds that only a God man could possess the highest grace. Yet he distinguishes his ex planation of why this is so from that of some earlier theo logians.24 He reports that some theologians have claimed that Christ’s grace is a different species of grace from that possessed by other human beings. According to Richard, these theo logians assert that only a nature assumed by a divine person is in 24 Richard of Middleton, III ., d. 13, a. 1, q. 2, ad. 1 (Brixen ed., 119a b): “Some say that the grace of Christ is not of the same species as the grace of other men. Therefore, although it is of a finite essence, nevertheless, it is not necessary that the grace of any other man be proportionate to it, but the grace of Christ, in the sense that it refers to the gratuitous union of his human nature to the divine person, as the supposit of the nature, is not of the same species with the grace of any other man, and is not proportioned to it, because the nature of no other man is united to the divine person by such a union. Nevertheless, it is difficult to see how the habit of grace that makes him pleasing and which informs the soul of Christ is not of the same species as the habit of grace that makes one pleasing in other men, since as was stated in book 2, grace and charity are really the same and [it is difficult to see how] the habit of charity informing the soul of Christ does not have God for its object in that formal under which is the object of charity for other men and even angels” (“Gratia autem animae Christi non est eiusdem speciei cum gratia alicuius alterius hominis, ut aliqui dicunt, et ideo quamvis sit finitae essentiae, non tamen oportet, quod gratia alicuius alterius hominis sibi possit proportionari, sed quamvis gratia Christi, secundum quod accipitur pro gratuita unione naturae humanae eius divinae personae, ut naturae supposito, nec sit eiusdem speciei cum gratia cuiuslibet alterius hominis, nec sibi proportionata, quia tali unione nullius alterius hominis natura est divinae personae unita, tamen difficile est videre quomodo habitus gratiae gratum facientis informatis animam Christi non sit eiusdem speciei cum habitibus gratiae gratum facientis in aliis hominibus, cum ut habitum est liber 2 gratia et charitas realiter idem sint et habitus charitatis informans animam Christi non Deum habet pro obiecto sua illa ratione formali, sub qua est obiectum charitatis hominum aliorum et etiam angelorum”). Quotations are from Richard of Middleton, + % ! + , vol. 3 (Brixen, 1591 [reprint, Frankfurt am Main: Minerva, 1963]). In some cases I have emended the punctuation when citing from this edition of Richard’s commentary. 566 ANDREW V. ROSATO potency to the particular species of grace that Christ possesses. The position he describes has close affinities with Bonaventure’s account of the uniqueness of Christ’s created grace. Richard, however, argues that a difference in magnitude does not require positing a difference in species. Moreover, the grace conferred on Christ and other human beings has the same effect insofar as it makes it possible for the person to elicit meritorious acts, and this too indicates that there is no basis for positing that Christ’s created grace is in a species distinct from the grace conferred on other human beings. Richard notes that there is another way of explaining why Christ has more grace than could be possessed by a nonassumed nature.25 According to this account, a nature assumed into hypostatic unity with the Logos has a greater capacity for receiving grace than a nonassumed nature because of the effect of the union on the assumed nature. This is so because the capacity for receiving grace corresponds to the perfection of one’s actual existence. Christ’s human nature exists in the 25 Richard of Middleton, III ., d. 13, a. 1, q. 2, ad 1 (Brixen ed., 119b): “Others respond to the argument [that Christ’s grace disproportionately exceeds that of other men] in another way: it must be said that the perfection of a work and the capacity of a habit making one suitable for that work corresponds to the nature by comparison to the perfection of its actual existence. Since therefore the actual existence of the human nature of Christ, by which it exists in the Word of God, as a nature in his supposit, disproportionately exceeds the actual existence of any angel, it is capable of so great a habit of grace, which could not be so great in it, if it were not united. [The capacity] would not be the same in any angel, unless God were to unite him to himself in the unity of person, just as the human nature of Christ was united” (“Unde aliqui aliter respondent ad argumentum: dicendum quod perfectio operis et capacitas habitus habilitantis ad illam operationem respondent naturae per comparationem ad perfectionem suae actualis existentiae. Cum ergo actualis existentia humanae naturae Christi, qua existit in Verbo Dei, ut natura in supposito improportionabiliter excedat existentiam actualem angeli cuiuscunque, capax est tanti habitus gratiae, quod in ea non posset esse tantus, si non esset unita. Nec in quocunque angelo, nisi Deus illum uniret sibi in unitate personae, sicut humana natura Christi est unita”). Even though Richard reports this as a position that some others have advanced, he seems to accept it as well. See also III ., d. 13, a. 1, q. 2, ad 2 (Brixen ed., 119b), where Richard claims that Christ’s soul has a greater capacity for grace because his human nature is united in person with the Logos. SCOTUS ON SATISFACTION 567 person of the Logos, and this way of existing disproportionately exceeds the actual existence of any other created nature. There fore, only a created rational nature united hypostatically to a person of the Trinity has the capacity for receiving as much grace as Christ received. To the extent that possessing this amount of grace is necessary for being able to make satisfaction, no would be able to make satisfaction for the sins of the human race. II. DUNS SCOTUS ON THE POSSIBILITY THAT A HUMAN PERSON COULD RECEIVE THE HIGHEST GRACE In his commentaries on distinction 13 of book III of the from both his ! and his , Scotus argues that the highest grace could be conferred on a non assumed nature in a way that addresses the challenges presented by figures like Bonaventure and Richard of Middleton. Scotus makes a distinction between two senses in which Christ might possess the highest grace.26 First, “highest” could be taken positively in which case it would refer to a grace that exceeds every other individual grace and no other instance of grace could be equal to it or exceed it. Second, “highest” could be taken negatively in which case it would mean that no other grace exceeds Christ’s grace, even though other people besides Christ could have an amount of grace equal to his. Scotus notes that if Christ possesses the highest grace, then it must be highest in the negative sense.27 This must be so if for no other reason 26 See Dun Scotus, III, d. 13, qq. 1 4, n. 27 (Vatican ed., 9:393) and ! III, d. 13, qq. 1 4, n. 37 (Vatican ed., 20:281). I will provide quotations from Scotus’s treatment of Christ’s grace in his III, d. 13 rather than ! III, d. 13. There is no significant difference between the teachings of these two texts on this topic, but the sometimes spells out the same point in greater detail. I will however provide references to the parallel passages in the ! for all the passages from the to which I refer. 27 Duns Scotus, III, d. 13, qq. 1 4, n. 28 (Vatican ed., 9:393 94): “By speaking in the first way, I say that God could not confer on the soul of Christ the highest possible grace (in the sense that God could not create a grace equal to it) because he was and is able to assume another nature equal to that one and to give to it an equal 568 ANDREW V. ROSATO than because a divine person could assume multiple human natures and give them the same amount of grace. Scotus goes on to argue that Christ does in fact possess the highest grace that God can create and that he alone possesses it because of his role as head of the Church,28 but before affirming these points he considers the following argument for denying even the possibility that Christ possesses the highest grace: “The soul of Christ is not the highest thing that can receive grace because [a human soul] is not the highest intellectual nature. Therefore, it cannot receive the highest grace.”29 As Scotus notes, this argument presupposes that the more excellent a created rational nature is, the greater its capacity for per fection.30 An angelic nature would have a greater capacity for grace than any human soul since an angelic nature is more excellent than a human nature. The human soul of Christ, therefore, could not possess the highest grace. Scotus presents, but does not endorse, a reply to this argument that is reminiscent of the position that Richard of Middleton mentions regarding how the hypostatic union affects the capacity of Christ’s soul for grace. According to this reply, an angelic nature does indeed have an inherently greater grace. In the second way, I say that he could give to that soul the highest grace that could be created” (“Primo modo loquendo, dico quod Deus non potuit conferre animae Christi summam gratiam possibilem cui non potest creare aequalem, quia potuit et potest aliam naturam aequalem isti assumere et aequalem gratiam sibi dare; secundo modo, dico quod summam gratiam creabilem potuit dare huic animae”). Cf. ! III, d. 13, qq. 1 4, nn. 12 and 37 (Vatican ed., 20: 275 and 281). 28 See Duns Scotus, III, d. 13, q. 1 4, nn. 50 52 (Vatican ed., 9:406) and ! III, d. 13, q. 1 4, n. 59 (Vatican ed., 20:289 90). 29 Duns Scotus, III, d. 13, q. 1 4, n. 2 (Vatican ed., 9:385): “Quia anima Christi non potuit esse summum gratificabile, quia non summa natura intellectualis; ergo nec summam gratiam potuit recipere.” Cf. ! III, d. 13, q. 1, nn. 2 4 (Vatican ed., 20:273). 30 Duns Scotus, III, d. 13, q. 1, n. 2 (Vatican ed., 9:385): “Proof of the consequent: a more excellent intellectual nature is capable of greater perfection and excellence because one’s capacity for perfection is determined by the grade of the perfectible nature” (“Probatio consequentiae: quia natura intellectualis excellentior est capax maioris perfectionis et excellentioris, quia capacitas perfectionis est secundum gradum naturae perfectibilis”). Cf. ! III, d. 13, q. 1, n. 4 (Vatican ed., 20:273). SCOTUS ON SATISFACTION 569 capacity for grace than a human nature. The hypostatic union, however, augments the capacity of the human soul for grace to such an extent that it becomes capable of receiving more grace than an angel.31 Scotus points out, by contrast, that even if the assumption of a human nature did augment its capacity for grace, then according to the principles of the argument, Christ still would not be able to possess the highest grace that God could create. At most he would possess the highest grace that God did create. The assumption of an angelic nature would augment its own capacity for grace just as it would augment the capacity of a human nature.32 According to Scotus, however, the hypostatic union does not augment the capacity of the assumed nature for grace. The hypostatic union consists precisely and exclusively in the dependence of a created nature on the person of the Word. This relation of dependence does not affect in any way the capacities of the assumed nature.33 Therefore, an assumed nature is not in 31 Duns Scotus, III, d. 13, qq. 1 4, n. 56 (Vatican ed., 9:407 8): “To the first it must be said that although it is not the highest thing that can receive grace, nevertheless it is united to the person of the Word, and from this union its capacity is increased so that it could receive the highest grace, which it could not have received, if it had not been assumed” (“Ad primum dicitur quod licet non sit summum gratificabile, tamen unitur personae Verbi, et ex hac unione ampliatur eius capacitas ut possit recipere summam gratiam, quam non posset recipere si non esset assumpta”). Cf. ! III, d. 13, qq. 1 4, n. 63 (Vatican ed., 20:290 91). 32 Duns Scotus, III, d. 13, q. 1, n. 58 (Vatican ed., 9:408): “Besides, if an angel would have been assumed, it would have had in virtue of its assumption a greater capacity than it has now, according to you, in such a way that it would have been increased beyond its natural capacity through its assumption to as great an extent as now it is increased beyond its natural capacity on the part of [Christ’s] soul, or more; and according to this, that nature could possess more grace than now is in the soul of Christ, and in this way the highest would not be [in Christ’s soul]—but the opposite is held” (“Praeterea, si angelus fuisset assumptus, habuisset ex vi assumptionis maiorem capacitatem quam nunc habet, per te, ita quod tantum auctum fuisset ultra capacitatem naturalem eius per assumptionem quantum nunc est auctum per unionem ex parte animae ultra suam naturalem capacitatem, vel plus; et secundum hoc, ipsa natura posset capere plus de gratia quam modo anima Christi, et ita hic non fuit summa, —cuius oppositum tenetur”). Cf. ! III, d. 13, q. 1 4, n. 65 (Vatican ed., 20:291). 33 Duns Scotus, III, d. 13, q. 1, n. 57 (Vatican ed., 9:408): “Concerning this nature no new absolute is posited through the union, because to be united to the 570 ANDREW V. ROSATO potency to more grace than a nonassumed nature. This line of reasoning provides a response to Bonaventure’s claim that the assumed nature must possess an infinite amount of grace in order for it to be united to the Logos. According to Scotus, the hypostatic union is brought about simply by the dependence of the human nature on the Logos. A human nature of itself is inclined to exist in its own proper created person, but in the case of the hypostatic union this inclination is obstructed by the dependence of the created nature on the Logos. There is no requirement that the created nature possess grace in order for it to be able to depend on the Logos rather than subsist in its own created person.34 According to Scotus, there may be other reasons that the assumed nature should receive grace, but it does not follow from the hypostatic union as such that the assumed human nature will receive any grace, much less the highest grace. Moreover, according to Scotus, the grace conferred on Christ’s soul could have been conferred on the soul of any rational creature.35 Word only indicates [the nature’s] special dependence on the Word; therefore, just as the nature remains the same with respect to all absolute things, so also it has the same capacity, because its capacity is from its nature” (“Circa istam naturam nihil ponitur absolutum novum per unionem, quia ipsam uniri Verbo non dicit nisi specialem dependentiam eius ad Verbum; sicut ergo manet natura eadem quantum ad omnia absoluta, ita et eandem habens capacitatem, quia capacitas eius est sua natura”). Cf. ! III, d. 13, q. 1 4, n. 64 (Vatican ed., 20:291). 34 To appreciate more fully how Scotus’s understanding of the hypostatic union does not augment the capacities of the assumed nature or presuppose the conferral of grace on the assumed nature, it would be useful to consider his negation theory of subsistence in more detail than the confines of this study will allow. For more on this and other related aspects of his understanding of the hypostatic union, see Duns Scotus, III, d. 1, pars 1, q. 1 (Vatican ed., 9:5 29). For an analysis of Scotus’s understanding of subsistence, see Richard Cross, 2 7 3 + (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 297 309. 35 In addition to asking whether the hypostatic union implies that the assumed nature is in potency to more grace than a nonassumed nature, Scotus also examines the question of whether any human nature could receive the highest grace from another perspective. He distinguishes between accidents that a given substance can receive in any grade and accidents that some substance can receive in only some of their grades. Scotus illustrates this point through an example of a subject that is unable to receive a certain SCOTUS ON SATISFACTION 571 III. DUNS SCOTUS ON THE MAGNITUDE OF SIN’S DEBT AND THE POSSIBILITY OF SATISFACTION Scotus’s thirteenth century predecessors generally accepted Anselm’s claim that the debt of sin was infinite in some sense that precluded the possibility of a from making satisfaction. Nevertheless it was rare for them to engage An selm’s argument for the magnitude of sin’s debt.36 Scotus, how ever, does do this in the process of giving his own explanation for how the debt of sin is essentially finite, but infinite in a certain respect. In book 1, chapter 21 of Anselm concludes that sin requires an infinite satisfaction on the basis of a thought experiment wherein he asks his interlocutor, Boso, whether it is permissible to commit a single sin in order to preserve the whole of creation.37 Anselm argues that it is not, and he emphasizes this point by going on to say that even the desire to preserve the good contained in an infinite number of universes could not justify any single sin. The debt that sin incurs, then, is determined by the magnitude of the things for the sake of which a person should not sin. Regarding what all of this implies about satisfaction, Anselm writes, “You, therefore, do not make satisfaction, if you do not pay back something greater than that accident in all of its grades. As Scotus puts it, water cannot receive the accident of “heat” in all of its grades. While water is able to receive this accident in some grades, there are other grades of heat that will “corrupt” water, or as we might say, make a liquid turn into steam. Grace, however, bears a different relation to rational created natures than does heat to water since no amount of grace is incompatible with a rational created nature. See III, d. 13, qq. 1 4, nn. 45 46 (Vatican ed., 9:402 3) and ! III, d. 13, qq. 1 4, nn. 54 55 (Vatican ed., 20:287 88). 36 McGuire claims that Scotus alone among the Franciscans directly engages Anselm’s way of explaining how the debt of sin is infinite and judges that “this last point indicates how well Scotus understands Anselm. None of the other scholastics had made Anselm’s point that man owes God something more valuable than all possible creations, but Scotus includes this idea” (0 2 2 " , 238). 37 See Anselm, 1.21 (Schmitt ed., 2:88 89). 572 ANDREW V. ROSATO for which you ought not to have committed the sin.”38 We must, therefore, in making satisfaction pay back to God something that is greater than an infinite number of universes, that is to say, something that is a greater good than all the actual and possible created good that has existed, does now exist, or ever could exist. Clearly nothing that is merely finite and only a small part of all possible created good could constitute an adequate payment for a debt that exceeds in value all actual and possible created reality. In Scotus’s judgment, Anselm “wishes to have infinity in every way, where there is none from the formal of the 39 object of the thing.” Anselm judges the gravity of sin in relation to the things for the sake of which a sin ought not to be committed, whereas Scotus argues that we should instead judge the gravity of sin in accord with the formal reality of the sinful act. As a human act its formal reality will be finite, and this indicates that sin incurs a finite debt. This account, of course, does not preclude different sins from incurring debts of different magnitudes, but all of them will be formally finite, including the totality of sin for which Christ makes satisfaction. Given this understanding of the debt of sin, Scotus holds that only a finite satisfaction is required. Yet Scotus does hold that what is offered as satisfaction must have a greater positive value than the negative value of the sins for which satisfaction is being made. Scotus judges the positive value of an act by reference to the intensity it possesses. The intensity of an act can come from various factors, such as the strength of will with which one elicits the act or the degree of perfection in the habit of charity that one makes use of in eliciting the act. In committing a sin, a person elicits a disordered act of love for a creature and does so with a certain intensity, and so in making satisfaction a person must elicit an 38 Anselm, 1.21 (Schmitt ed., 2:89): “Non ergo satisfacis, si non reddis aliquid maius, quam sit id pro quo peccatum facere non debueras.” 39 Duns Scotus, ! III, d. 20, q. 1, n. 31 (Vatican ed., 21:50): “Unde ipse vult omnino habere infinitatem, ubi nulla est ex formali ratione obiecti rei.” SCOTUS ON SATISFACTION 573 act of love for God for his own sake that has a greater intensity than the sinful act.40 One’s act of satisfaction will possess a greater intensity than one’s sinful act, when the act is elicited in accord with grace and with a greater effort of will than was the sinful act.41 Even though both of these principles—the effort of 40 Scotus distinguishes between loving God for his own sake and loving him as the source of goods for oneself and others. In making satisfaction one must elicit an act of love for God for his own sake without reference to whether he confers good on anything else; that is, God must be loved insofar as he is the highest good in himself, rather than as merely one who bestows goods. For more on loving God for his own sake, see Duns Scotus, III, d. 27, q. 1, nn. 18 20 (Vatican ed., 10:53 55). 41 Duns Scotus, ! III, d. 20, q. 1, n. 31 (Vatican ed., 21:49 50): “It is not necessary that satisfaction for the sin of the first man exceed the whole of creation in magnitude and perfection: for it would have sufficed to have only offered a greater good to God than was the evil of the man who sinned; whence, if Adam would have had through grace and charity one or many acts of loving God for his own sake, from a greater effort of free choice than was his effort in sinning, such a love would have sufficed for redeeming and remitting his sin, and it would have been satisfaction. Therefore, this proposition is false: ‘one ought to offer to God something greater than that for which one ought not to sin’; but just as for the love of a creature, as a lovable object, he sinned—since he ought not to sin—against God, so by satisfying to God he ought to offer something objectively greater than the creature, namely a love that attains to God for his own sake” (“non oportuit satisfactionem pro peccato primi hominis excedere totam creaturam in magnitudine et perfectione: suffecisset enim obtulisse maius bonum Deo quam fuit malum huius hominis peccantis tantum; unde si Adam per gratiam datam et caritatem habuisset unum vel multos actus diligendi Deum propter se, ex maiore conatu liberi arbitrii quam fuit conatus in peccando, talis dilectio suffecisset pro peccato suo redimendo et remittendo, et fuisset satisfactio. Tunc igitur haec propositio est falsa, quod ‘debuit offerre Deo maius omni illo pro quo peccare non debuerat’; sed sicut pro amore creaturae, ut obiecti diligibilis, peccavit—cum non debuit peccare—in Deum, ita satisfaciendo Deo debuit offerre aliquid maius obiective quam sit creatura, scilicet amorem attingentem Deum propter se”). Commenting on this passage McGuire writes, “The necessity of satisfaction is not removed; rather the meaning of satisfaction is redefined in a way that centres on an act of love instead of a compensatory act of justice. Love of God becomes the key element in satisfaction, just as love of created things is the key factor in sin” (0 2 2 " , 286 87). As I have shown above, however, an emphasis on satisfaction as an act of love is not entirely unique to Scotus, but rather common to several thirteenth century theologians to the extent that these theologians hold that satisfaction is made possible by acting in accord with created grace. For these theologians link created grace with habitual charity, which is the virtue that allows a person to love God and to act on that love. Thus, speaking of created grace as one source for determining the value of 574 ANDREW V. ROSATO one’s will and the amount of one’s grace—determine the intensity of the act, the role of grace is primarily responsible for determining both the intensity of the act and its acceptability to God as recompense for sin.42 While an act of love for God for his own sake is formally finite, Scotus nevertheless also explains that there is a certain sense in which such an act could be called infinite: This love objectively, as it terminates in God for his own sake, infinitely exceeds one’s love for a creature, just as God [infinitely exceeds] a creature. Hence, just as one infinitely sinned through the love of a less noble object, so also one ought to make an infinite satisfaction through the love of a more noble object.43 This applies not only to individuals who in the wake of Christ can make satisfaction for their own sins, but also to Christ himself as he makes satisfaction for human sin. While the principles of Christ’s act of satisfaction are finite, his act of satisfaction infinitely exceeds the debt of sin. Yet, as we have seen, Scotus holds that the principles that enable Christ to make satisfaction could have been possessed by a , and a could have elicited an act of love for God for his own sake in virtue of those principles. Thus, according to Scotus, neither the magnitude of sin’s debt nor the way in which Christ pays it imply that only a God man could make satisfaction. Christ’s redemptive work is tantamount to claiming that the degree of love with which Christ willed the Passion is correlated with its ability to pay the debt of sin. 42 See Duns Scotus I, d. 17, qq. 1 2, nn. 137 59 (Vatican ed., 5:207 15), for an extended discussion of the relationship between the will and habitual charity in meritorious action. Scotus argues at n. 152 that while both a free act of the will and grace are principles of a meritorious act, grace is primarily responsible for a human action being meritorious. 43 Duns Scotus, ! III, d. 20, q. 1, n. 31 (Vatican ed., 21:49 50): “et iste amor obiective, ut terminatur in Deum propter se, excedit amorem creaturae in infinitum, sicut Deus creaturam. Unde sicut peccavit per amorem ignobilioris obiecti in infinitum, ita debuit satisfacere per amorem nobilioris in infinitum.” SCOTUS ON SATISFACTION 575 IV. DUNS SCOTUS ON THE DIVINITY OF THE REDEEMER Given Scotus’s argument that God could have willed that a human person make satisfaction for the whole human race, it might seem that he does not attribute any significance to Christ’s divinity in his analysis of how Christ makes satisfaction. He does do so, however, and he develops his own views on this by engaging certain ideas current among thirteenth century theologians. Among the thirteenth century theologians surveyed above, we have seen two different explanations for how Christ’s divinity contributed to his ability to make satisfaction. One explanation, found in Bonaventure and based on Anselm’s teaching in , held that the infinite dignity of Christ’s divine person conferred redemptive value on his suffering. The other explanation, which is found in Olivi but not in Anselm, held that Christ’s divine will confers infinite value on his satisfaction insofar as it partially elicits his actions.44 Scotus takes note of both of these positions.45 He 44 In addition to Olivi whom I discussed above on this point, Richard of Middleton also refers to Christ’s divine will as conferring infinite value on his suffering, when he writes, “To the first it must be said that although the passion of Christ was intensively and extensively finite inasmuch as the nature according to which Christ suffered was something finite, nevertheless because he who was suffering was not only man, but also God (although he did not suffer according to his divine nature) and that suffering was not only accepted by the human will of Christ, which is finite, but also by his divine will, which is infinite, therefore, the merit of that suffering had infinite power in some respect” (“Ad primum in oppositum dicendum quod quamvis passio Christi fuerit finita intensive et extensive inquantum natura secundum quam Christus patiebatur erat res finita, tamen quia ille qui patiebatur, non tantum erat homo, sed etiam Deus (quamvis non pateretur secundum naturam divinam) nec tantum acceptabatur illa passio a voluntate Christi humana, quae finita est, sed etiam a voluntate eius divina, quae est infinita, ideo meritum illius passionis virtutem secundum respectum aliquem habuit infinitam”) (III . d. 19, a. 1, q. 3, ad 1 [Brixen ed., 201a]). In other places, Richard also invokes the Anselmian claim that the dignity of Christ’s person confers infinite value on his suffering, as when he writes: “To the third [argument] it must be said that the merit of Christ is not only considered according to the nobility of his created grace, which is finite, but also according to the nobility of the person acting, which is infinite. For that action was not only an action of man, but also an action of God” (“Ad tertium 576 ANDREW V. ROSATO supports a version of the Anselmian view, but criticizes the non Anselmian one. Against the position that Christ’s divine will in accepting his suffering explains how his meritorious actions are of infinite value in a way that could not be true of anything that a human person could accomplish, Scotus argues that the causal rela tionship between Christ’s divine and human will is not different from the causal relationship between the divine will and any created will. Just as that relationship does not make the acts of ordinary human beings attain infinite value, neither does it do so in the case of Christ.46 According to Scotus, what is unique about the relationship between Christ’s two wills on account of dicendum quod meritum Christi non tamen ponderatur secundum nobilitatem gratiae creatae, quae finita est, sed etiam secundum nobilitatem personae agentis, quae infinita est. Illa enim actio non tantum fuit actio hominis, sed etiam actio Dei”) (III . d. 13, a. 1, q. 2, ad. 3 [Brixen ed., 119b]). 45 Duns Scotus, ! III, d. 19, n. 9 (Vatican ed., 21:27 28): “They prove the first, [1] because they say that the merit of Christ had a certain infinity from the supposit of the Word, which was eliciting the operations of his assumed nature, because he was eliciting all the operations and acts that were appropriate to each nature, and therefore—in virtue of that supposit—the operations of that supposit were also an infinite good: and in this way, his death and passion as well as his other operations had a certain infinity, so that they could suffice for deleting an infinite number of sins and conferring grace and glory [on an infinite number of people]. [2] Similarly, merit is determined according to the dignity of the person meriting, which is and was infinite. Therefore, [Christ] merited infinitely, and in this way with respect to sufficiency he satisfied for all” (“Primum probant, quia dicunt quod meritum Christi habuit infinitatem quamdam ex supposito Verbi, quod eliciebat et exercebat operationes huius naturae assumptae, quia eliciebat operationes omnes et actus convenientes utrique naturae, et ideo—virtute illius suppositi—et operationes illius suppositi fuerunt bonum infinitum: et sic mors et passio et aliae operationes habuerunt infinitatem quamdam, ut sufficerent pro infinitis peccatis delendis, et gratiis et gloriis conferendis. Similiter, meritum pensatur secundum dignitatem personae merentis, quae est et fuit infinita; ergo infinite merebatur, et sic quantum ad sufficientiam satisfecit pro omnibus”). 46 See ! III, d. 19, q. 1, n. 15 (Vatican ed., 21:30) for Scotus’s denial that Christ’s Passion would take on infinite value, even if there was some sort of unique causal relationship between Christ’s created and uncreated wills. On this scenario, Scotus assumes that the human will would still be among the essential causes of the act. According to Scotus, however, nothing that is either formally infinite or worthy of an extensively infinite reward can be causally dependent upon something finite. SCOTUS ON SATISFACTION 577 the hypostatic union is that Christ’s human acts can be predicated of the Logos, but this does not cause them to possess infinite value.47 Scotus instead affirms the Anselmian position that the dignity of Christ’s person confers redemptive value on his suffering. He explains this position, however, in light of his own under standing of merit, which emphasizes God’s freedom to deter mine what counts as meritorious. As we have seen, Scotus holds that Christ is able to make satisfaction through exercising his created will in accord with the highest grace. This satisfaction is even rightly called infinite to the extent that its object infinitely exceeds the object of a sinful act. Yet Scotus will also allow that Christ’s merit and satisfaction were infinite in another sense: Everything other than God is a good because it is willed and accepted by God. Therefore, on account of some condition of the person meriting—which is not formally a condition of a meritorious act—he is able to accept that merit as sufficient for an infinite [number of sinners]. In this way the merit of Christ was a quasi infinite, not formally infinite . . . but this would not have been so, if he would have been a pure man [ ]. For [God] infinitely accepted it because of the infinity of the person meriting.48 In basing the infinite merit of Christ’s passion on the dignity of his person rather than on the intensity of his meritorious act, Scotus recognizes that this is a not a standard way of accounting for what makes a certain act meritorious in the sight of God. Nevertheless, he believes that affirming the infinite merit of Christ on the basis of his divine person is consistent with his theory of merit because God’s decision to determine what counts as meritorious is more fundamental than the role played 47 See Duns Scotus, ! III, d. 17, q. 1, n. 15 (Vatican ed., 20:427). For more on Scotus’s understanding of Christ’s two wills, see Cross, 2 7 , 218 29; and Barnes, = @ , 313 28. 48 Duns Scotus, ! III, d. 19, q. 1, n. 23 (Vatican ed., 21:34): “omne aliud a Deo est bonum ‘quia a Deo est volitum et acceptatum’, ideo pro aliqua condicione personae merentis—quae non est formaliter condicio actus merendi—potest acceptare illud meritum tamquam sufficiens pro infinitis; et sic meritum Christi fuit quasi infinitum, non tamen formaliter infinitum…quod non fuisset si fuisset purus homo, quia infinitum acceptavit propter infinitatem personae merentis.” 578 ANDREW V. ROSATO by created grace and the human will in eliciting meritorious acts.49 At the same time, the infinite dignity of Christ’s person provides a basis for explaining how Christ could receive such a reward, when it would be impossible for God to give such a reward to any human person. There is, however, a tension between Scotus’s endorsement of the Anselmian claim that the infinite dignity of Christ’s person confers redemptive value on his merit and satisfaction and his claim that God could have willed that a human person make satisfaction for the human race, for Christ’s satisfaction and merit are infinite in a way that could not be true for any human person. It is in the course of discussing the distinction between the sufficiency and efficacy of Christ’s redemptive merit that Scotus defends his Anselmian claim about the role of Christ’s divinity in conferring infinite value on his merit. Attending to how Scotus understands this distinction will resolve the tension that arises at this point in his soteriology. It was commonly held by Scholastic theologians that Christ’s merit is infinite with respect to its sufficiency.50 This means that his merit would suffice for redeeming an infinite number of human persons. This is why Scotus calls Christ’s merit quasi infinite rather than formally infinite. The reward for his merit is inexhaustible and as such is extensively infinite, but not intensively or formally infinite. Thirteenth century theologians, however, commonly held that Christ’s merit was finite with 49 Scotus discusses meritorious acts and divine acceptation in several places. See, for instance, I, d. 17, pars 1, qq. 1 2, n. 129 and nn. 143 49 (Vatican 5:202 3 and 208 11); and ? 17 in A 3 ? ? , trans. Felix Alluntis and Allan Wolter (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1975), 388 98. For an analysis of Scotus on merit and divine acceptation, see Werner Dettloff, ! > 6 B " Franziskanische Forschungen 10 (Werl/Westf.:Dietrich Coelde, 1954). 50 See, for example, Bonaventure, III ., d. 13, a. 1, q. 2, arg. 3 and corpus (Quaracchi ed., 3:279a b); and III ., d. 19, a. 1, q. 2, ad 1 and 3 (Quaracchi ed., 3:404a b) as well as Richard of Middleton, III , d. 13, art. 1, q. 2 (Brixen ed., 119a). SCOTUS ON SATISFACTION 579 respect to its efficacy because only a limited number of people would benefit from it. In light of the distinction between the sufficiency and efficacy of Christ’s merit, we should interpret Scotus’s position that a could make satisfaction for sin just as Christ did to be limited to the following claim: the satisfaction rendered by a who possessed the highest grace would have the same efficacy as Christ’s merit actually has in the current order of salvation. This is a more limited claim than arguing that the redemptive merit of a mere man would have the same efficacy sufficiency as Christ’s. The efficacy of Christ’s merit is more central to Scotus’s understanding of Christ’s redemptive work than is the suffi ciency of his merit. This becomes clear when we consider his understanding of the relationship between God’s predestination of Christ’s passion as the means of salvation and his predestination of particular individuals to beatitude. Prior to willing Christ’s passion and death as a remedy for sin, God had willed that a finite number of human beings reach beatitude. After sin the merits that flow from the passion of Christ become the means for these people to reach beatitude. The passion will be efficacious for all and only those for whom beatitude had previously been willed. As Scotus writes, “The passion of Christ presupposed a determinate number of the predestined: for since merit is ordered to a reward, the merit of reparation presupposes the fallen.”51 Since he holds that Christ’s merit will only be efficacious for those predestined to beatitude, the 51 Duns Scotus, ! III, d. 19, n. 22 (Vatican ed., 21:33): “passio Christi praesupponebat determinatum numerum praedestinatorum: nam, cum meritum ordinetur ad praemium, et ideo meritum reparationis praesupponat lapsum.” Scotus does not believe that God wills the damnation of any person. Instead God does not will a certain good for them (namely, beatitude), and those who are damned are so because of their own choices. In a largely sympathetic account of Scotus’s soteriology, Marilyn McCord Adams criticizes Scotus’s views on the eternal punishment of sinners. See her “Duns Scotus on the Goodness of God,” 8 % 4 (1987): 486 505. For an interesting discussion of why Scotus might have thought that God allows the earthly choices of some of his creatures to lead to eternal damnation, see Giorgio Pini, “Scotus on Hell,” 89 (2012): 223 41. 580 ANDREW V. ROSATO surplus of Christ’s merit that is based on his divinity and that in principle could apply to an endless number of people is not relevant to his redemptive work. Even though Scotus upholds in his own way the common thesis that Christ’s merit is infinite with respect to its sufficiency, this is not relevant to the question of whether a could makes satisfaction just as Christ did.52 While only the satisfaction and merit of a God man could be infinite with respect to sufficiency, under the right circum stances the satisfaction and merit of human person could be just as efficacious as Christ’s satisfaction and merit. It is this point that Scotus takes as decisive for the Anselmian question of whether or not only a God man could make satisfaction for human sin. 52 In “Scotus’ Voluntarist Approach to the Atonement Reconsidered,” > 2 62 (2009): 421 40, Andrew S. Yang argues that Scotus’s reliance on the divinity of Christ to account for why God could legitimately accept his meritorious suffering as infinite + 22 mitigates the supposed voluntarism of Scotus’s soteriology. For not even God could accept the acts of human person or an angel as infinite in this sense. Yang is correct about this, and by pointing it out he helps to correct the impression that Scotus’s soteriology implies that God acts arbitrarily. Yang claims that Scotus’s position on the infinite sufficiency of Christ’s merit upholds the necessity that a God man make satisfaction in the present order of salvation (see ibid., 422). For Scotus it is necessary that a God man make satisfaction in the present order, if we are speaking of a conditional necessity that follows upon what God has freely willed. It is incorrect to interpret Scotus as upholding this necessity, however, if it is meant to imply that Scotus believes that God could not have willed in an otherwise identical order of salvation that a make satisfaction and bring about human redemption just as a does in this order. As I have argued, Scotus’s understanding of predestination mitigates the importance of the infinite sufficiency of Christ’s merit for the current order of salvation. For this reason everything about the current order of salvation could remain the same except that instead of God’s willing the passion and death of Christ as the means of redemption he could will a to make satisfaction for sin and merit human salvation. Scotus, therefore, is best interpreted as holding that it would only be impossible for a to make satisfaction in some order of salvation that included the predestination of an extensively infinite number of people to beatitude. SCOTUS ON SATISFACTION 581 V. SCOTUS ON THE INTELLIGIBILITY OF GOD’S ACTUAL PLAN OF REDEMPTION Scotus’s argument for the possibility that a human person could have made satisfaction for sin raises the question of why God did in fact choose to will that a God man do so. Anselm held that God’s goodness, wisdom, and justice would be called into question, if it was not necessary for him to allow the innocent God man to suffer and die for the redemption of the human race. Thirteenth century Scholastic theologians com monly held that God could have brought about salvation for the human race even without any satisfaction for sin, but that only a God man could make satisfaction for human sin. Even though according to many thirteenth century theologians it was not necessary that a God man redeem the human race, they argued in various ways that it was more fitting for salvation to be brought about through the rendering of satisfaction than without it, thus showing the intelligibility of God’s actual plan of salvation.53 Scotus’s position precludes him from following either of the above approaches to explaining why permitting Christ’s suffering and death is in accord with God’s goodness, wisdom, and justice. Yet he does offer an explanation for why God chose to redeem man through the suffering and death of the incarnate Logos, and his explanation hinges precisely on its being utterly unnecessary: We are very much bound to him because man could have been redeemed in another way, and nevertheless, from his free will he redeemed us in this way. We are very much obliged to him, and more so than if it would have been necessary that we be redeemed in this way and not in another way. Therefore, in order to draw us to love him, he especially did this (as I believe), and he wished human beings to be more bound to God—just as if someone first fathers a person and afterwards instructs him in learning and sanctity, he 53 See, for example, Bonaventure, III ., d. 20, a.1, qq. 1 2, 6 (Quaracchi ed., 3:416 22, 430 32); and Richard of Middleton III , d. 20, a. 1, qq. 1 3 (Brixen ed., 207 10). 582 ANDREW V. ROSATO would be more obligated to that person than if he had only fathered him and left someone else to have done these things for him in another way.54 As this passage indicates, Scotus believes that an important goal of Christ’s redemptive work is to incite our love for God.55 Inflamed with this love we become more receptive to the graces that Christ has merited for us through his suffering and death. There is no more efficacious way to bring about an increased desire for God than by his decision to will that a God man serve as the redeemer of the human race. That it was not necessary for a God man to suffer and die on behalf of the human race, but chosen by God nonetheless, demonstrates more clearly than anything else could the lengths to which God has gone to reunite his fallen creatures to himself. Scotus is not the first Scholastic theologian to argue that human love for God is readily inflamed when we recognize the lengths to which God actually went in redeeming the human race, but this position assumes a greater importance in his soteriology than it does in his predecessors since it is largely on this that hangs his ability to defend the wisdom of God in willing the suffering and death of a God man to serve as the means of redemption.56 54 Duns Scotus, ! III, d. 20, q. 1, n. 38 (Vatican ed., 21:51 52): “Et ideo multum tenemur ei: ex quo enim homo aliter potuit fuisse redemptus, et tamen ex libera voluntate redemit sic, multum ei tenemur, et amplius quam si sic necessario—et non aliter—potuissemus fuisse redempti. Ideo ad alliciendum nos ad amorem sui, hoc praecipui (ut credo) fecit at quia hominem voluit magis Deo teneri,—sicut si aliquis primo genuisset aliquem et postea instruxit eum in disciplina et sanctitate, amplius obligaretur ei quam si tantum genuisset eum, et alius sibi fecisset alia.” 55 On this aspect of Scotus’s soteriology, see Girolamo Pica, “La Passione di Cristo nel B. Giovannis Duns Scoto” 87 (2012): 41 59. Pica comments that for Scotus “the Passion of Christ is simply the key to understanding the love of God for us” (ibid., 58). 56 Aside from affirming the fittingness of a God man making satisfaction, Scotus also discusses the fittingness of the precise way that Christ makes satisfaction. See ! III d. 20, q. 1, n. 43 (Vatican ed., 21:53) for Scotus’s argument for the superiority of making satisfaction through suffering over making it in a way that did not involve suffering. See ! III, d. 20, q. 1, n. 37 (Vatican ed., 21:51) for Scotus’s discussion SCOTUS ON SATISFACTION 583 CONCLUSION Scotus is the first Scholastic theologian to defend the possibility that a human person could have made satisfaction for the sins of the human race. Even though this is a novel con clusion, his way of examining the question finds antecedents in the way that many of his Franciscan predecessors examined the question of whether only a God man could make satisfaction for sin. Scotus’s debt to his thirteenth century predecessors is most evident in his concern to explain how Christ’s suffering and death come to take on such great value because of the created grace that he possesses. In eliciting an act of love for God for his own sake in accord with the highest grace that God could create, Christ elicits an act of love that infinitely outweighs the debt of all human sin and merits graces for all who are predestined by God for beatitude. That Scotus goes on to argue that God could have willed that a human person accomplish the same thing follows from his understanding of the ways in which the debt of sin is infinite and finite as well as his denial of the claim that only a human nature assumed by a divine person could possess the highest grace. Scotus also engages his predecessors when he asks about the role of Christ’s divinity in conferring redemptive value on his suffering and death. Scotus considers the two dominant approaches to this question among his thirteenth century predecessors when he asks whether the dignity of the divine person or the role of the divine will in eliciting his suffering can in any way augment the value of the offering Christ makes on the Cross. As we have seen, Scotus endorses the more traditional view that the dignity of Christ’s person does in some way confer infinite value on his death. Yet Scotus explains this in a way that prevents it from conflicting with his claim that a human person could have made satisfaction for the human race. of the circumstances of Jesus’ life, which impelled him to teach the truth about God to man even to the point of accepting death. 584 ANDREW V. ROSATO Although Scotus’s Franciscan predecessors did not hold that a human person could make satisfaction for human sin, they did hold that God could have brought about human salvation apart from the Incarnation and death of Christ. In the face of the other alternatives available to God for bringing about human salvation, both Scotus and his predecessors seek to show that God’s actual decision evinces his wisdom, goodness, and justice. Scotus locates the intelligibility of God’s decision in the unique force it has for evoking the first stirrings of love for God from human beings, who will then be more receptive to the graces that Christ has merited for them through his suffering and death. In this and the other ways mentioned, Scotus shows himself to be a creative developer of a thirteenth century Franciscan understanding of Christ’s redemptive work, rather than someone whose understanding of divine power introduces a radical break with that tradition. 57 57 I would like to thank Jennifer Rosato and an anonymous reader for for several useful comments on an earlier draft of this article. B ! "#$ %&'('")*++, %)-%'%"$." %/)+ '% ./"#'.0 +$%% "#*. 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