A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION ITS NATURE AND REQUIREMENTS BY AN IRISH PRIEST ”ï>ubtin Μ. H. GILL AND SON, LTD. 50 UPPER O’CONNELL STREET 1933 stibii Obstat : PATRICIUS DARGAN, Censor Theol. Deput. imprimi poUst : t EDUâRDUS, Archiep. Dublinen., Πιη„ ÛUBLLN·!, , di' lr AIartii> 1933 Hiberniae Primas. Printed and Bound in Ireland at the n ihe^ssof lbe Pubhsher3 η y 95101 CONTENTS PAGE Introduction................................................................... vi i PART I Forty Current Erroneous Systems : Socialism ....................................... 1 Communism ....................................... 2 III. Anarchism ....................................... 3 IV. Secularism ....................................... 5 V. Materialism ....................................... 6 VI. Darwinism ...................................... 7 vu. Rationalism ..................................... 9 Pantheism ..........................................10 I. II. vin. IX. Deism X. Modernism ........................................... 13 XI. Liberalism .......................................... 15 Indifferentism .......................................... 17 XII. ....................................................... 12 XIII. Agnosticism XIV. Scepticism ........................................... 19 ........................................... 21 iii iv CONTENTS XV. XVI. XVI XVII XIX XX XXI Evolution Freethought Malthusianism Naturalism Syndicalism C' tilitarianism Pragmatism XXII P ositivism ΧΧΙΠ Immanence XXIV Monism ... XXV Empiricism XXVI Spiritism XXVII Pessimism xxviii Theosophy XXIX Masonry ... XXX Atheism ... XXXI. xxxii. Divorce ... Eugenics ... xxxiii. Co-Education XXXIV. Cremation XXXV. Mechanism XXXVI. . Christian Science CONTENTS V PAGE XXXVII. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. Psycho-Analysis ............... 63 Individualism ............... ............... 66 Collectivism ............... ............... 69 Euthanasia ............... .............. 71 PART II I Catholic Sociology. I. The Family—The Fundamental Unit of Society—A Most Sacred Bond 74 II. Conscience and Duty—Feelings Awakened by the Intimations of Conscience ... 79 III. Employer and Worker IV. .......................... 84 Wages ................................................... 90 V. Arbitration ................................................... 95 VI. The Strike ................................................... 101 VII. VIII. The Boycott................................................... 107 Property ................................................... 111 PART III Organised Catholic Action and How it could be Strengthened............................................... 118 Soviet Propaganda ...................................................... 121 VI CONTENTS p* Authority and Allegiance—Source of Moral Power to Command in Human Society ... Rulers and Subjects—Catholic Church Wedded to any Particular Form Government ........................................... INTRODUCTION not HE object of this publication is to furnish those engaged in Catholic Action with μ the knowledge needed for combating Duty of Rulers and Subjects ........................... the pernicious errors current at the present The Catholic Press—American Cardinal’s p time and the unscrupulous propaganda by Appeal to the People............................... which these errors are disseminated in many Current Errors .................................................. 1 countries. First of all, these errors must be Index ................................................... ............... l· known in order to be exposed and refuted. Then, the Catholic principles and teaching, I showing the true Christian views on these subI jects, must be known and expounded for the I benefit of the large numbers of Catholics who do not understand them and who, consequently, I are liable to be misled by the propagators of I these erroneous systems. The Popes, in recent times, and especially ! the present Pontiff, have been very insistent on Catholic Action in every country7. It is to be I carried on by the united action of clergy and laity, under the direction and guidance of the i Hierarchy of each country. It embraces a large variety of Catholic activities, aiming at the promotion of Catholic principles, xand of good works of every kind. of T vii viii INTRODUCTION Many of these works consist in the formation and direction of societies of young people of both sexes which tend to safeguard the moral and religious well-being of all the members of these societies. These bodies, and other similar ones, form what may be called the rank and file—the soldiers, as it were,—of the Catholic army. But, over and above these, we have what may be called the officers—educated and cultured people—who lead the way, by attack­ ing the enemy, refuting his erroneous teachings and expounding the Catholic view on these false teachings. It is to both these classes that such know’ledge is offered in these pages as may prove useful to them in the twofold work of refuting error and expounding Truth. PART I FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS I.—Socialism The fundamental principle of Socialism is the substitution of State monopoly for private ownership of property. Marx, a German Jew, published a book in 1867, on Capital, and his teachings in that book have formed the ground­ work of Socialism in many countries. The abolition of private ownership is in direct conflict with Catholic doctrine, and is condemned by Leo XIII in his Encyclical Rerum Nov arum (1890). The vast majority of Socialists in all countries are adherents of the Marxian doctrine. Socialist leaders, popular literature, the Socialist Press, in Germany, France, the Netherlands, England, Austria, Spain, Russia, the United States, are avowedly anti-Christian and anti-Catholic. Christian Socialism is, therefore, a contradiction in terms. Catholic democrats such as Ketteler, Manning 1 2 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION and others should not be styled Socialists at all, and no loyal and instructed Catholic should now claim or accept the title of Christian Socialist. When shall we have in Ireland associations of working people based on Catholic principles such as exist in several European countries? The trade unions and Socialist associations of England are run on Godless principles, and our Irish working people (almost entirely Catholic) seem to be still under the domination of these bodies who “ call them out ” by “ lightning strikes ” much oftener than they “ call out ” the English and Scottish workers. II.—Communism COMMUNISM is a system which demands that production goods, such as land, railways and factories ; and consumption goods, such as dwellings, furniture, food, clothing and money, should be the property of the whole com­ munity rather than of individuals. It is closely allied to Socialism and Anarchism. Its advocates compare it to Community Life in the Catholic Church. But there is an im­ portant difference in the two systems, namely, that while religious community life is based on FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 3 the free choice of every individual member of a religious community, modern Communism is based on compulsion, and aims at economic and utilitarian ends. The verdict of experience and the natural rights of man make it certain that enforced Communism is utterly impracticable as a social system. Hence the Church condemns such Communism, and maintains the natural right of every individual to possess private property and goods of every kind. The Red Flag is the ensign of Communism, and Communists are sometimes designated by the name of Reds. III.—Anarchism Anarchism, the offspring of Communism, is the modern theory which proposes to do away with all existing forms of government, and to organise a society which will exercise all its functions without any controlling or directing authority. Proudhon, a French man of letters, is re­ garded as the author of the system. Two of his sayings are “ Anarchy is order ” and “ All property is theft.” Under this system, criminals are not to be punished, but treated 4 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION as lunatics or sick men. There are to be no rulers in Church or State—no masters, no employers. Religion is to be eliminated, because it intro­ duces God as the basis of authority, and degrades man by inculcating meekness and sub­ mission, thus making man a slave and robbing him of his natural dignity. Free love is to take the place of marriage, and family life with its restrictions is to cease. The Anarchists have newspapers in several languages, viz., fourteen in French, two in English (one in London and one in New York), three in German, ten in Italian, four in Spanish, one in Hebrew, two in Portuguese, two in Bohemian, and one in Dutch. The apostacy from Christianity and the acceptance of Atheism have sown the seeds of this evil system. If there is no God there is no master. Here the Anarchist is logical. The Commandments of God are null and void. With Anarchism there can be no family, no State, no Church, no society of any kind. In much of the literature and journalism of the day there exists almost a worship of human power and wealth, no matter with how much crime they may be associated. Again, the methods of education in some countries which FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 5 absolutely debar even the mention of the name of God from the schools, could not fail to develop a generation of Anarchists. IV.—Secularism SECULARISM is the system which advocates the rigid exclusion of God and Religion from all the concerns of life. Between Secularism and the Catholic Church there can be no possible compromise. The Secularist shouts : “ Things secular are as separate from the Church as land from the ocean.” The Church answers : “ The present life cannot be looked on as an end in itself, and as independent of the future life. Among the duties of the present life must be reckoned those wThich arise from the existence and nature of God, the fact of a Divine Revelation and the necessity of preparing for a future life.” Only the Atheist can be a consistent Secularist. Hence the secularisation of educa­ tion in school, college and university can never be acquiesced in by the Catholic Church, as she cannot renounce her mission to teach the truths she received from her Divine Founder. Charles Bradlaugh (1833-1891), an English M.P., an extreme Secularist and Atheist, in his 6 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION farewell speech, spoke as follows : “ One element of danger in Europe is the approach of the Roman Catholic Church in political life. ... Beware when that great Church—whose power none can deny, the capacity of whose leading men is marked—tries to use the democracy as its weapon. There is danger to freedom of thought, to freedom of speech, to freedom of action. The great struggle in this country will not be betw-een Free Thought and the Church of England, between Free Thought and Dissent, but, as I have always taught and now repeat, between Free Thought and Rome.” V.—Materialism Materialism starts with the theory that matter, a primordial substance w’ithout consciousness or life, is the origin and principle of all that exists from the inorganic stone up to man. Matter, the Materialist says, alone really exists ; it is eternal, contains all things, and beyond it there is nothing—no soul or conscience, no virtue or intelligence, no God. The Materialist doctrine is only' the revival of the fallacy of the pagan philosopher Epicurus, that the world was created by the fortuitous encounter of atoms or molecules of FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 7 matter—infinite in number, independent of one another, and existing from eternity. The German philosopher Hoffmann says of Materialism : “It hazards the most senseless theories of all kinds, such as time without begin­ ning or end, space, an absolutely infinite number of atoms, as if these base infinities were not self-contradictory.’’ The Vatican Council (Canon II) says: “ If any shall not blush to affirm that besides matter there is nothing, let him be anathema.’’ True Philosophy easily refutes Materialism. Thus Hoffmann again says: “ It would be hard to find, in any theory of creation, such a mass of contradictions as in that of Materialism. We are told that the mutable proceeds from the immutable, the finite from the infinite, move­ ment from inaction, life from what is dead, sense from the senseless, spirit from that w’hich is unspiritual.” From this extract alone we may gather how much Materialism is in conflict with Catholic teaching. VI.—Darwinism SIXTY years ago Darwinism had a strong vogue amongst scientists in the English-speaking 8 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION world, consequent upon the publication of Darwin’s work, entitled “ The Origin of Species ” (1859). In late years his theories have been generally rejected by scientists as untenable and self-contradictory. His main theory is that of the evolution of species by natural selection and heredity or descent. Natural selection with Darwin means the struggle for existence ” or “ the survival of the fittest.” This theory, called also trans­ mutation, is founded on chance and excludes the idea of creation. In nature, the existence of species is an undoubted fact, absolutely in­ compatible with the theory of selection. As a theory, Darwinism is scientifically in­ adequate since it does not account for the origin of attributes fitted to certain purposes, and which indicates design and thereby an intel­ ligent Creator, that is, God. Darwinism as applied to man must be rejected both as atheistical and unphilosophical. No advocate of the system has as yet furnished any evidence that man’s body was originally formed from animals such as apes. With those who hold this view wre need not quarrel over their choice of ancestry. FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 9 VII.—Rationalism For the Rationalist, nature is the sole and adequate revelation, and human reason the sole source of knowledge. Rationalism is opposed alike to science and to truth. The Rationalists’ axiom is: “ Reason includes all things; beyond it, there is nothing”—as uttered by Shelling, a German philosopher. Pius IX, in the Brief Gravissimus (Decem­ ber, 1862), against the errors of Froschammer, wrote as follows : “ True and sound philosophy holds a very exalted position. . . . But in such a matter of most grave importance we can never permit all things to be rashly confounded, or that reason should lay hold of and disturb matters belonging to Faith. . . . The use of reason precedes faith and leads man to faith with the aid of revelation and grace (S.C., 1855).” Although faith be above reason, yet there can never be found any real strife or variance between them ; for they both spring from the one and the same fount of immutable truth,— the great and good God, — and therefore mutually assist each other. The religion of Rationalism has no consecration of the past, nor is it the product of actual, real life. It is 10 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION but a cold and dead formula, and can never urge man to heroism in virtue or sustain him against the assaults of passion. The office of philosophy is to search out truth ; carefully and correctly to teach human reason, which, though obscured by the fall, is by no means extinct. Thus philosophy demon­ strates a number of those verities which the faith proposes to our belief, for example, the existence of God, His Nature, His Attributes, and demonstrates, justifies and defends these by arguments based on the premises of reason. Such is the function, such the subject matter of the austere and beautiful science of true philosophy. Thus both reason and philosophy become the handmaids of faith and Religion. VIII.—Pantheism PANTHEISM is the system according to which God and the world are one. It is thus pure Atheism, as it denies a Personal Deity, distinct from the world—its Creator and constant preserver. The Pantheist holds that God and Nature are one and the same substance, and that all ex­ ternal objects are nothing, or only modifications of the Supreme Substance. FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 11 Pantheism is refuted by the simple facts of experience. Each one of us can say confi­ dently : “ I know myself to be one who freely determines to do good or evil. The choice of merit or demerit, reward or punishment, is mine. I am master of my lot. I feel in my innermost being that I am not a wave, tossed to and fro, nor a sand heap whirled together by blind necessity, to be again dispersed into the one hopeless ‘ absolute whole.’ I have a proper personal existence of my own, and that existence has a purpose. I am not a leaf of autumn blown down to make room for another, nor merely a means to an end ; but I have an end which is my own by right and belongs in­ dividually to myself.” Pius IX, in his Allocution of June 9th, 1862, condemned Pantheism in these words : “ With a perversity only equalled by their folly, they venture to assert that the Supreme, All-Wise, All-Provident Deity has no existence apart from the visible universe ; that God and nature are the same, and similarly subject to change ; that God is modified in man and the world ; and that everything is God and possesses the very substance of the Divinity. “ But God and the world then being one and the same thing, there is no difference between 12 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION spirit and matter, necessity and liberty, truth and falsehood, good and evil, right and wrong. In truth, nothing can be imagined, more insane, impious and irrational than this teaching.” IX.—Deism Deism as a system has for its fundamental tenet the denial of the presence and Providence of God in the world. He is apart from His Creation and unconcerned with its workings. He allows it to run its course without inter­ ference on His Part. Deism originated in England in the latter part of the seventeenth century. Its chief pro­ tagonists were Lords Shaftesbury and Bolingbroke. The latter in his posthumous works argues against the truth and value of Scriptural history, and asserts that Christianity is a system foisted on the unlettered by the cunning of the clergy for their own ends. Shaftesbury rejects the Christian doctrine of rewards and punish­ ments as not only useless but positively mis­ chievous. The English Deists criticised adversely the traditional Protestant teachings, and opposed the findings of reason to the truths of faith FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 13 and revelation. For this they were called rationalists. From their claim to unlimited freedom to criticise the doctrines set forth in the Bible and taught by the Churches, they were also called freethinkers. They denied the doctrine of the Trinity and of future rewards and punishments. They rejected the miracu­ lous element in Scripture and Tradition, and the Mediatorial character of Christ. The atonement and the doctrine of the “ imputed righteousness of Christ ” — then popular with Protestant orthodoxy—shared the same fate as the other Christological doctrines. They raised their voices against ecclesiastical authority, inveighed against “ priest-craft,” and asserted that revealed religion was an im­ posture, an invention of the priestly caste, to subdue and more easily govern and exploit the ignorant. X.—Modernism Modernism as a system is based on Kant’s philosophy. It purports to reconstruct Catholicism in accordance with modem thought. Kant was a rationalist, and modem thought is mainly rationalistic. It is a difficult matter to interpret Catholicity in terms of 14 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION rationalism. Modernism has the hardihood to attempt this task, and herein lies its danger. Catholicity can be reconciled with all that is sound in modern thought, but it is futile to propose to reconcile it with that form of modern thought which is imbued with the teaching of Kant and deeply tainted with rationalism. Pius X, in his Encyclical Pascendi (Septem­ ber, 1907), calls Modernism “ the synthesis (combination) of all heresies.” Kant lays down the principle that the human mind cannot have true knowledge of anything except what the senses experience—what we see, hear, taste, touch, etc. Such a theory of knowledge vitiated Kant’s whole system. He was a Protestant rationalist (1724-1804) who became Professor of Philosophy in Kônigsberg University in East Prussia. He held that the human mind knows appearances only. But God and the super­ natural truths of faith are not appearances. About the beginning of this century some Catholic savants, lay and clerical, seem to have fallen under the spell of Kant, and set about reconciling Catholicity with Kant’s theory of knowledge. What was the upshot of their efforts? In France and Italy a considerable number of the younger clergy fell into the FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 15 snares of “ modern thought ” and “ scientific progress.” Whilst France and Italy became infected with Modernist errors, and England did not escape them, Belgium and Ireland steered clear of them. The extreme Modernists rejected the main dogmas and tenets of Catholicism, viz. : Revelation, Faith, Dogma, the Church, and Authority. For Revelation they substituted the “Religious Sentiment” of each one; for Faith, “ Vital Immanence ” ; for Dogma, a tentative and provisional “ formula ” ; for the Visible Church, the “ Collective Conscience.” For the Vicar of Christ and Church Authority, the Modernist says: ‘‘the entire Christian people is the true and immediate Vicar of Christ.” Modernism would turn Christianity topsy­ turvy. It is the Gospel according to Kant. XL—Liberalism LIBERALISM is a many-sided system and its various phases and meanings are sponsored by an attractive title. In the seventeenth century' it meant “ worthy of a free man ” ; and even now people speak of a liberal education,” the “ liberal arts,” and so on. It also meant, 16 ■ A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION intellectually broad-minded, frank, open, and genial. Politically, it may mean a system opposed to absolutism and centralization of power. In all these senses, Liberalism is not at variance with the spirit and teaching of the Catholic Church. Since the end of the eighteenth century it has generally signified a partial or total liberation of man from the supernatural, moral and Divine Order. The Magna Charta of this new form of Liberalism was proclaimed by the French Revolution in 1789. It preached, and practised, an unrestrained freedom of speech, Î thought, conscience, creed, press and politics. This led to the abolition of Divine Right and Authority and the investing of man with Supreme authority. But it is in the domain of Religion and Morality that Liberalism is most dangerous and has wrought the greatest evils. This religious Liberalism was the forerunner of Modernism. It logically leads to a denial of God by putting deified humanity in His place. All phases of this Liberalism were condemned in the Constitution de Fide of the Vatican Council (1870), and the definition of Papal Infallibility7 was a further condemnation of it. FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 17 XII.—INDIFFERENTISM INDIFFERENTISM is the system which denies that it is the duty of man to worship God by believ­ ing and practising the true religion. Political indifferentism means the State policy which treats all religions within its borders as being on equal footing in the eyes of the law. While not an ideal system of statesmanship, it is not to be condemned so long as it accords to the different religious bodies complete liberty in belief and practice. In most countries this is a necessity in the present religious state of human society. Religious Indifference is mainly of three kinds: absolute, restricted and liberal. The first rejects the fundamental basis of religion, that is, man’s dependence on a personal Creator, Whom, in consequence of this depen­ dence, he is bound to worship, obey and serve. This error is common to all atheistic, material­ istic, pantheistic and agnostic philosophies. Restricted Indifference admits the necessity of religion on account of its salutary influence on human life. But it holds that all religions are equally worthy, equally beneficial to man, and equally pleasing to God. The absurdity of this view is clear from the fact that various 18 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION religions are in disagreement ; and where they disagree, if one possesses the truth, the other must be in error. They are often in conflict over moral issues. Thus, Mohammedanism approves polygamy, whilst Christianity condemns it. If these two teachers are equally trustworthy, it follows that there are no moral values at all, and that the Deity to Whom they are equally pleasing must be devoid of all moral attributes. To say that all religions are equally good is tantamount to saying that religion is good for nothing. Liberal Indifferentism holds that it does not matter what Church or sect one belongs to, that all forms of Christianity are on the same foot­ ing, are equally pleasing to God and service­ able to man. It follows from this that a Catholic might abandon Catholicism and join : another Christian sect, or one which calls itself i Christian, without committing any sin. Such ■ a view is manifestly untenable. Indifferentism springs from Rationalism, which rejects a Divine Revelation containing religious truths, which are, to a great extent, beyond the unaided powers of reason, and which must be learned from the body com­ missioned by God to teach and expound these FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 19 truths. That body is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. To leave that Church and join another is to abandon religious and Divine Truth, and to embrace falsehood and error. XIII.—Agnosticism AGNOSTICISM is the theory which limits the extent and validity of knowledge. With special reference to theology, it is the system which denies that it is possible for man to acquire the knowledge of God. Recent Agnosticism is, to a great extent, anti-religious, criticising adversely, not only the knowledge we have of God, but the grounds of belief in Him as well. A combination of Agnosticism with Atheism rather than with sentimental irrational belief is the course adopted by many Agnostics. The idea of God is eliminated from the systematic view taken of the world and of life. The attitude of solemnly “ suspended judgment ” — “we simply don’t know ”—shades off firstly into indifference towards Religion, and next into unbelief. On the plea of insufficient evidence, the Agnostic ceases even to believe that God exists. 20 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION With Theism (natural religion) the idea of God —inadequate and solely proportional as it is— is, nevertheless, positive, true and valid, according to the laws which govern all our | knowing. Four distinct questions arise out of the ques- j tion of God’s knowableness, viz., existence,’ nature, knowledge and definition. The Agnos-1 tic separates the first two, which he should combine, and combines the last two, which should be separated. By treating the question of God’s nature apart from the question of ■ God’s existence, he cuts himself off from the j only possible means of knowing, and then turns | his fault of method into a philosophy of the unknowable. That is Agnosticism. The idea of God cannot be analysed wholly 1 apart from the evidences or “ proofs ” bearing on it. By identifying the knowing of God with the question of defining Him, the Agnostic con­ founds the one with the other. They are dis­ tinct problems to be treated separately, since knowledge may fall short of definition and still be knowledge. Reason is competent, there­ fore, to know God from His works, and this refutes the theory of Agnosticism, or the un­ knowableness of God. FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 21 XIV.—Scepticism SCEPTICISM is the system which denies the possibility of attaining truth. It is a denial of the capacity of the human intellect to know anything whatever with certainty. It existed amongst the Greek philosophers whose contradictory theories inevitably led to Scepticism. Aristotle propounded the doctrine of axiomatic or self-evident truths. This doctrine, later on, proved a severe check on Scepticism. There must be some self-evident principles which underlie the structure of human know­ ledge and are presupposed by the very nature of things. In regard to Religious truth the Renaissance revived the Scepticism of the Greeks. Its aim was to discredit reason on the old grounds of contradiction and the impossibility of proving anything. Saint Thomas and the Scholastics met Scepticism by a rational, coherent and systematic theory of the ultimate nature of things, based on self-evident truths, but con­ sistent with the facts of experience and the truths of Revelation. Faith understood in the Catholic sense was, and still is, the chief target for the attacks of the Sceptics. 22 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 23 The late A. J. Balfour, in his “ Defence oi XV.—Evolution Philosophic Doubt,” seeks to uphold religious The theory known as Evolution has occupied belief on the questionable ground that it is no the public mind for upwards of a hundred years less certain than the theory and method of in more than one country. Its most important scientific knowledge. The Sceptic contradicts aspect is that which regards man and human himself at the outset. He lays down the in­ beings in general. ability of the mind to reach any certain know­ How are Catholics to view this theory? In ledge, and at the same time assumes its capacity the first place, we must distinguish between the to criticise the faculty of knowledge. He knows different meanings attributable to the term. and believes that nothing can be known for Firstly, it may be taken as only a scientific certain ; and yet he knows and holds as certain hypothesis, or a philosophical conception or this important fact that nothing can be known. speculation. Again, it may be viewed as based If nothing can be known, how can he know this on a theistic or atheistic foundation, and as fact to be true and certain? In other words, applied only to the vegetable and lower animal he knows a thing which cannot be known—a kingdom, or to man. manifest contradiction. As a scientific hypothesis, Evolution does not The Sceptic confounds moral certainty and deal with the origin of life, and considers the absolute certainty. The latter exists when existing species of plants and lower animals as evidence and proof are complete—the former developed from some pre-existing extinct wrhen all reasonable grounds for doubt are ex­ species. This hypothesis is not opposed to the cluded ; and this moral or practical certainty Christian conception of the universe. is sufficient for reasonable beings. As a philosophical conception, Evolution Axiomatic or self-evident truths must be considers the entire history of the universe as accepted and acted on, as, although they a harmonious development, brought about by cannot be proved, they are manifest to all natural laws implanted in Nature by God the reasonable minds. In these at least true and Creator. This agrees with the Christian view ; certain knowledge is contained, and they, it is taught by St. Thomas, and rests on a theistic therefore, refute Sceptics and Scepticism. foundation. 24 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 25 moral dictates of Christian Revelation, and base their beliefs on the unfettered findings of human reason. They are typical rationalists. They first received the name of freethinkers in connection with the English Deists in the early part of the eighteenth century. They all agree in refusing to accept the doctrines of an authoritative Christianity. The early heretics were freethinkers in their rejection of the authority of the Church on questions connected with their heresies. In the Middle Ages there were freethinkers and rationalists amongst Christian philosophers —Pantheists and others who reasoned away Revelation in true freethought style. Now, in the twentieth century, freethought and reliance on the sufficiency of human reason are far more prevalent than in past times. j In the latter centuries freethought has gained ground among the masses. In England, it began with the Deists, Aunett and Chubb, to become vulgarised and to reach the lower strata of society. Its main tenets are the denial of • prophecy, miracle and inspiration (scriptural), XVI.—FREETHOUGHT its rejection of all external revelation, and its assertion of the right of free speculation in all FREETHOUGHT is the system professed and rational matters. From the last-named, there acted on bv the class of people known as Free­ often follows the denial of the existence of God thinkers. They reject the religious truths and Opposed to this is another theory of Evolu-I tion on an atheistic basis, and which rejects the1 doctrine of a Personal Creator. The Christian view demands a creative act for the origin of the universe and of man. The atheistic theory of Evolution rejects the existence of the soul as distinct from matter and sinks into blank materialism. For the Catholic, the following conclusions are to be maintained : 1. The origin of life is unknown to science. 2. The origin of the main organic types, and their principal sub-divisions, are likewise unknown to science. 3. There is no evidence in favour of an ascending evolution of organic forms. 4. There is no trace of even a merely probable argument in favour of the animal origin of man’s body. 5. The soul of every man is created by God, and, being spiritual, cannot have a material origin. 26 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION (Atheism, Agnosticism), of the immortality of the soul, and of the freedom of the will. In modern times, the chief freethinkers were Voltaire, Tom Payne, Renan, Strauss, Haekel, Bradlaugh and Holyoake. XVII.—Malthusianism THIS system takes its name from the Rev. Thomas Malthus, an Anglican divine (17661834). He published a book in 1798 entitled “ An Essay on the Principle of Population.” His thesis was that population constantly tends to outrun subsistence and consequently should be curtailed. His chief means of doing this he called “ moral restraint.” His theory’ met with immediate and almost universal acceptance, and exerted a great influence on economics, sociology and legis­ lation, during the first half of the nineteenth century. Besides a section of the Socialists, the most important group of writers who re­ jected his theory* were Catholic economists, such as Liberatore, Devas, Perin, Pesch and Antoine. Neo-Malthusiantsm is the logical out­ come of Malthusianism proper. The NeoMalthusians urge married couples to use FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 27 artificial and immoral devices for preventing conception. Amongst the prominent leaders of this movement were Robert Dale Owen, John Stuart Mill, Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant. To-day we have others, but they are exposed and confounded as they arise. The motto of the Malthusians is “ a small family or none at all.” Catholic economists reject the Malthusian theory and the view of social facts on which it is founded. Their views may be thus sum­ marised : Where production is effectively organised, and wealth justly distributed ; where the morals of the people render them industrious, frugal, adverse to debilitating comforts, and willing to refrain from all immoral practices in the con­ jugal relation ; where a considerable proportion of the people embrace the condition of religious celibacy, and others live chastely, and yet defer marriage for a longer or shorter period, and many emigrate whenever the population of any region becomes congested—undue pressure of population will never occur except locally and temporarily. As Father Pesch, the famous Jesuit, sum­ marises it : “ Where the quality^ of the people is safeguarded, there need be no fear for its 28 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION quantity. In countries where Birth Control has prevailed, thoughtful men see that these coun­ tries are confronted, not with the problem of excessive fecundity, but of race suicide.” FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 29 naturalists could not consistently condemn such idolatrous practices. Deistic naturalism holds that God does not, never did, and never will interfere with the natural course of events. The fixed laws of nature can account for everything that happens XVIII.—Naturalism in the world of mind or matter. It follows from Naturalism is a tendency common to a this that miracles, that is, effects produced by number of philosophical and religious systems God Himself and transcending the forces of to view nature as the one original and funda­ nature, must be rejected. mental source of all that exists in terms of Since natural reason is the only source of nature. All events find their adequate ex­ knowledge a Divine Revelation must also be planation within nature itself. rejected. No supernatural means are needed Materialistic naturalism asserts that matter —such as divine grace to enlighten the mind, is the only reality. It claims that all realities in or strengthen the will. The Fall, the mysteries the world, including mind and all mental pro­ of the Incarnation and the Redemption find no cesses, are manifestations of matter, and obey place in a naturalistic creed. the same necessary laws. The general ten­ Naturalism is, therefore, directly opposed to dency of materialistic naturalism is towards the Christian Religion. Leo XIII in the Atheism. In such a system there is no room Encyclical Immortale Dei (1885), lays it down for freedom of the will, responsibility and per­ that “ the integral profession of the Catholic sonal immortality. Faith is in no way consistent with naturalistic Pantheistic naturalism asserts that God is not and rationalistic opinions, the sum and sub­ transcendent and personal, but immanent in the stance of which is to do away altogether with world ; and that everything in nature is but the Christian institutions, and, disregarding the manifestation of this one common substance. rights of God, to attribute to men the supreme When we hear of savage peoples worshipping authority.” stones, trees and mountains, the Pantheistic 30 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION XIX—Syndicalism SYNDICALISM implies the principles and prac­ tices of the French syndicates composing “ the General Confederation of Labour.” It is called also “ direct action,” and is a combination of 1 revolutionary trades unionism, Anarchism and Socialism. It is founded mainly on the theories of Proudhon and Marx. The primary objects of Syndicalism are the destruction of the existing order of society, the expropriation and abolition of Capital, and the elimination of the entire system of wages. The State is to be violently combated, even when it enacts measures beneficial to the labourer. There are only two classes, the employer and the employed, and anything which foments bitterness and disagreement between these two is a triumph for the worker. All this is pure Marxian doctrine. The great and decisive end aimed at by Syndicalism is the general strike in all industries at the same time. Already, even here in Ireland, we have felt a touch of Syndicalism in what has been called the sympathetic strike,” that is, the stopping and paralysing of all work and industries of a kindred nature with the aggrieved section’s work. Official Syndicalism aims at a general FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 31 strike in all kinds of work, in all countries at the same time. A strike is to industry what war is to society in general, and must remain as abhorrent to everyone as military conflicts are to the peoples of all nations. There are, however, pacifist and reformist elements in the Syndicalist move­ ment who are opposed to violent methods, who believe in securing better financial and social conditions for the worker by constitutional methods. Such seem to be the elements in the English and Australian Labour Parliamentary Parties, that are opposed to extreme Syndi­ calism and Communism. XX.—Utilitarianism Utilitarianism is the ethical theory which teaches that the end of human conduct is hap­ piness ; and that the norm which distinguishes conduct as right and wrong is pleasure and pain. In John Stuart Mill’s words: “The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, utility, or the greatest happiness prin­ ciple, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness ; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.” An English philosopher named Bentham was the first to give the system its name of Utili- 32 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 33 tarianism in his book, “ The Principles of needs, net realisation of conduct, and judges reality Morals and Legislation ” (1789). Bentham by this norm to the exclusion of all others. and his disciples dissociated morality from its The origin of Pragmatism may be traced to religious basis, and resolved moral obligation Kant. R; From Kant’s substitution of moral for into a prejudice or feeling resulting from a long- theoretical th consciousness came a progeny of continued association of disagreeable conse- non-rationalistic philosophies, which influenced the quences attending some kinds of actions and tl founders of Pragmatism, such as Latme’s advantages following from others. ξ philosophy of value instead of validity. Also The word “ ought ” Bentham calls “an the t trend of scientific thought in the second half authoritative impostor, the talisman of arro­ of the nineteenth century is to be reckoned. In ancient and mediaeval times, scientists gance, insolence and ignorance.” aimed at the discovery of causes, laws and Herbert Spencer’s ethical construction is facts ; the nineteenth century men were satis­ fundamentally Utilitarian. He holds pleasure and pain to be the standard which discriminates I fied with improved hypotheses instead of a true cause or an established law. Such was the right from wrong, thereby viewing the moral theory of materialistic evolution, which is still value of actions as entirely dependent on their only a hypothesis or supposition. If the sup­ utility. position functions satisfactorily, that is enough The weakness of Utilitarianism is that it fails to find the way from egoism (selfishness) to I to declare it a truth. With the Pragmatist there are truths but no altruism, its identification of self-interest and truth—immutable, fixed and certain. As J. S. benevolence, and its assumption that the useful Mill teaches, “ all truths are hypothetical,” and the morally right are identical. and depend on consequences, results and fruits. XXI.—Pragmatism As to God and Religion, Professor James, the high-priest of Pragmatism, says : “ On PRAGMATISM as a system means the insistence; on practical consequences as the test of truth. Pragmatic principles, if the hypothesis of God works out satisfactorily in the widest sense of It sets up as the standard of truth some nonthe word, it is true.” But, as the Pragmatist rational test, such as action, satisfaction off 34 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 35 makes experience the test of “ the hypothesis that the data of sense experience are the only of God,” if we attach any meaning to the idea objects and criteria of human knowledge. As a of God, we must mean a Being Whose existence religion it denies the existence of a Personal is not capable of direct and intuitional ex-1 God, and takes humanity “ the great being ” perience except in the supernatural order—an as the object of veneration and cult. It is the order which the Pragmatist does not admit, j religion of humanity. Pragmatism sets up the principle that “ man Its author was Auguste Comte (1798-1857), a is the measure of all things.” The consequences French professor, who was deranged for one to you and me are the test of the meaning and year (1826-27). His religion has for its object truth of our concepts, judgments and reason­ the “ great being ” (humanity), “ the great ings. Pragmatism is nominalistic in ,denying I medium ” (world space), and the great fetish the validity of universal concepts ; it is sensistic, ' (the earth), which form the Positivist Trinity. for it restricts the functional value of concepts The absurdity of such a religion is selfto sense experience. It is anarchistic, too. evident. As to its philosophical tenets, they Discarding intellectual logic, it discards ( were accepted by leading philosophers in principles and has no substitute for them England (Mill, Harrison, Holt), France, except individual experience. It appeals to Germany and other countries, and exercised a future prosperity as a pragmatic test of truth, . pernicious influence on philosophy during the and leaves the verdict to time and a future | nineteenth century. They led to systems of generation. positive or scientific morality, utilitarianism in By claiming to be a system of philosophy, it ethics and naturalism in religion. Positivism introduces confusion into the relations between | is thus a continuation of crude Empiricism, philosophy and religion. Associationism and Nominalism. Positivism asserts that sense experiences are the sole criterion and object of human know­ XXII —Positivism ledge, but does not prove its assertion. It is Positivism is both a philosophical and a true that all our knowledge starts from sense religious system. As a philosophy it maintains | experience, but it is not proved that it stops 36 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS there. Above particular facts there are abstract notions, general laws, universal and necessary principles, which cannot be per­ ceived by our senses, but can be understood and explained by our intelligence. Immaterial beings cannot be known in the same ways as material beings, but this is no reason for declar­ ing them unknowable to our intelligence. Positivism confounds images and ideas, experimental analogy and abstraction. Mere experience is insufficient to account for our general ideas. Abstract and universal ideas are the work of a purely intellectual and im­ material agent or being and not of sense ex­ perience. Hence Positivism as a philosophical system is as erroneous as its pretended religion with humanity as its God. XXI11. —IMMANENCE IMMANENCE as a modern system holds that God is contained in the world and in man—in other words, God is man and man is God. This theory of Immanence is two-fold, namely, absolute and relative. These two kinds of Immanence have long struggled for supremacy—from the time of Socrates, who re­ fused to look upon himself as part of the ! j 37 “ Great AH,” and declared himself distinct from the universe. He professes the im­ manence of man, but not absolute immanence, for he recognises the fact that man is subject to external influences. Absolute immanence fell back before the preaching of Christianity, which set forth the personality of man and the distinction between God and {he world—in other words, relative immanence. St. Augustine contends for re­ lative immanence, and it triumphed in the Middle Ages under St. Thomas. The seventeenth and eighteenth century philosophers set up absolute immanence as a dogma wThich still confronts revealed religion, and appears as one of the sources of Modernism and liberal Protestantism. The Encyclical of Pius X (1907), Pascendi Gregis, defines its two forms in the following words : “ For we ask does this immanence make God and man distinct or not? If it does, in what does it differ from the Catholic doctrine? or wrhy does it reject wffiat is taught in regard to Revelation? If it does not make God and man distinct, it is Pantheism. But this immanence of the Modernists would claim that every phenomenon of consciousness proceeds from man as man.” 38 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION This absolute immanence underlies all the forms of evolutionist monism. This monism sets aside the separateness between God and the world ; and the distinction between the natural and the supernatural. Here, then, we have the basis of liberal Protestantism and Modernism. XXIV.—Monism MONISM is a philosophical term (one alone), which is opposed to Dualism. Dualism dis­ tinguishes between soul and body, matter and spirit, object and subject, matter and force; and the system which denies such a distinction, or merges both in a higher unity, is called Monism (oneness). In Theology, Monism means Pantheism, that is, that there is no real distinction betwreen God and the universe and that God is indwell­ ing in it and part of it. Theism (natural re­ ligion) admits that He is indwelling in the universe, but denies that He is comprised in or identified with it. Psychological Dualism maintains that man is one compound, consisting of body and soul, which are matter and form. The soul is the principle of life, energy and perfection ; the body the principle of decay, potentiality and FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 39 imperfection. Their union is substantial, not accidental. They are really distinct and even separable. Yet they act, and re-act on, and co-operate with, each other. Monism tends to obliterate all distinction between soul and body. Materialistic Monism reduces the soul to matter and material con­ ditions, and denies that there is any distinction between soul and body. Modern Materialism knows no soul except the nervous system. Cabanais proclaims his Materialism in this crude formula : “ The brain digests impres­ sions and organically secretes thought.” Idealistic Monism reduces matter to mind and mental conditions. It holds that all matter is non-existent, including the human body. Other equally absurd Materialistic theories are known as parallelism and occasionalism regard­ ing the mutual operations of soul and body. Dualism leaves room for Faith. Monism leaves no room for Faith. XXV.—Empiricism Empiricism signifies the theory that the phenomena of consciousness are the product of sensuous experience ; and, secondly, that all human knowledge is derived exclusively from 40 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION experience, which includes external sense­ percepts, and internal representations and in­ ferences, without the aid of any superorganic intellectual factor. Empiricism includes (1) materialism ; (2) sensism, and (3) positivism. (1) Modern materialists hold that know­ ledge is accounted for either by cerebral secretion or motion, whilst Haeckel looks on it ; as “ a physiological process effected by certain brain cells.” (2) It includes Sensism by denying any essential difference between sensations and ideas—logically involving materialism. Sensism was formulated by Locke, Bacon, Hobbs, and lastly by Berkeley. Berkeley denied the objec­ tive basis of universal ideas, and, indeed, of the whole material universe. They all teach that ideas are but images of the mind’s subjective organic impressions. It follows that the super­ sensible is unknowable, and that the spiritual essence or substantial being of the soul is dis­ sipated into a series of conscious states. (3) Positivists declare the supersensible un­ knowable—the one source of cognition being sense-experience, experiment, and education from phenomena. Catholic philosophy teaches that experience FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 41 is the primary source of human knowledge, but that there are other sources beyond sensations. Sensation and sensuous representation differ essentially from the idea produced by the in­ tellect, which is an immaterial, supersensuous power, or faculty. Ideas, as representative of essences, are the terms whereof absolutely universal principles are constituted. Hence, ideas are universal, whereas sensations and images represent only objects that affect the sensory organs, that is, individual, physically existing objects. Sensism implies scepticism. By it the prin­ ciple of causality is either rejected or pro­ nounced doubtful. Hence there can be no cer­ tainty of the objective existence of things. Sensism destroys the foundations of morality and religion. For, as Sensists and Positivists admit, their theories leave no proof of the soul’s spirituality and immortality, of the existence of the moral law (with its obligations and sanc­ tions of a future life) ; of the existence of God and His relation to man. XXVI.—Spiritism SPIRITISM is the system which teaches that the living can communicate with the spirits of the 42 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION departed. It is also a species of religion based i on the belief that the discarnate spirits in making known their condition also indicate the means of salvation. Its phenomena are of two kinds, viz., physical and psychical. The former include the production of raps and other sounds ; move­ ment of objects (tables, chairs), without con­ tact ; apparitions of objects in a closed room without any visible agency to convey them; ht or faces ; raising of ; the appearance of a spirit photography in irms of deceased peralong with the likeness 1 person. nena are those which nessages, such as table­ questions ; automatic rance-speaking, clairis from the dead, and :eive messages, special id. The first mediums •garet Fox, of Rochesin 1848. The gatheractices are carried on if J·*- FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 43 Allowing that some things occur at seances which are beyond natural agencies, the chief question is, are these spirits really those of the departed, or beings that were never embodied in human form? The best explanation refers these com­ munications to demoniac intervention. This view is confirmed from the nature of these com­ munications, which antagonise the essential truths of religion, such as the Divinity of Christ, Redemption and Atonement, Judgment and future retribution ; and encourage agnosticism, pantheism and re-incarnation. A Decree of the Holy Office, dated March 30th, 1898, condemns Spiritistic practices, even though intercourse with the demon be excluded and intercourse sought with good spirits only. What the Church condemns in Spiritism is superstition, wTith its evil consequences for re­ ligion and morality. XXVII.—Pessimism As a philosophical system, Pessimism may be taken as one of the many attempts to account for the presence of evil in the world. With Schopenhauer, the originator of Pes­ simism as a system, evil in the full sense of the 44 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION word is a fundamental principle in the life of man. The world is, according to him, essen­ tially bad, and “ ought not to be.” Hence comes the ethical theory which may be summed up as the necessity for ” denying the will to live.” The pain of life can be abolished only by ceasing to live.” On this principle the poet Leopardi extolled suicide, and the philosopher Mainlâuder took his own life. Pessimism may be judged by an estimate of the relative amount of pleasure and pain in average human life. Here a judgment of value is more to the point than a quantitative estimate of pleasure and pain. Can we discover any absolute standard, any safe estimate of the com­ parative importance of pleasures and pains which is the same for all? Such a standard of value is found in religious belief, and in its complete form in the Faith of Catholics. Religion fixes the scale of values by re­ ference, not to varying individual sensibilities, but to an eternal law, which is always the ideal reason for individual judgment and guidance. The Christian law of duty gives to action in itself, possibly quite the reverse of pleasurable, a value far outweighing that of satisfaction FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 45 arising from any specific pleasure, whether sensuous or intellectual. The gloomy outlook on this life is deeply modified by the “ eternal values ” which are the special province of Christianity. The un­ happiness of the world is compensated by the satisfaction arising from a peaceful conscience and a sense of , harmony between individual action and eternal law. Faith and Love con­ tribute an element of joy to life which cannot be destroyed, and may even be enhanced by temporal sufferings. XXVI11 .—Theosophy THEOSOPHY is a system which claims to gain the knowledge of God by direct intuition of the Divine Essence. It is an offshoot of Spiritism. Madame Blavatsky, its founder, a Russian woman, practised as a spiritualistic medium in Cairo in 1872. She afterwards went to the United States, where she courted notoriety as a Spiritist, but owing to the ex­ posure of certain fraudulent mediums, there was a slump in Spiritism, and needy occultists found it necessary to provide some new· sen­ sation. As a result, the Theosophical Society was founded by Madame Blavatsky in New York City in 1875. Its ostensible objects were : 46 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 47 1.To form the nucleus of a universal XXIX.—Masonry brotherhood of humanity without distinction ot Freemasonry as it exists at present had its race, creed, sex, caste or colour. beginning in the establishment of the Grand 2. To investigate the unexplained laws of Lodge of England in the year 1717. Its nature and the powers latent in man. The pretended antiquity is a myth invented to latter includes magic, the occult, the uncanny, £ive it prestige in the eyes of its votaries. the marvellous in every shape and form. Shortly after its establishment it adopted a Madame Blavatsky claimed the discovery’ of new religious formula, viz., “ the universal Tibetan occultism, or esoteric Buddhism. Her religion of humanity ”—a purely naturalistic frauds were exposed by Columb and his wife, belief, which rejects the supernatural and tends who had been in her service, and by the to religious indifferentism. This formula is both London Society of Psychical Research in 1884, anti-Christian and anti-Catholic, and Pope when she was in India. Yet her teaching was Clement XII gives this as the chief ground on continued by Mrs. Besant and others. which he condemned it and forbade Catholics With the Theosophists there is no super­ to join it in his Constitution Em menti (28th natural, no Personal God, and, for this reason, April, 1738). It is no less to be condemned for they say the system is more readily embraced its inscrutable secrecy and intended deception by Atheists and Agnostics. It teaches also the by symbols ; its work by men “ who, like foxes, absurd doctrine of re-incarnation and the law endeavour to root up the vineyard ” and per­ of Karma resulting from causes set in motion vert the heart of the simple. Such was Masonry during the previous incarnations. in 1738—and such it is to-day wherever it is Theosophy, in spite of its Christian ethical strongly rooted, as in some European countries. phraseology, is a form of Pantheism, and denies Leo XIII, the sixth Pope who solemnly con­ a Personal God and immortality. It is a strange demned it (1884), declared its ultimate purpose mixture of mysticism, charlatanism and to be “ the overthrow of the whole religious, thaumaturgie pretension, expressed in words political and social order based on Christian borrowed from Christian ethics and scientific I institutions, and the establishment of a newr state truths. 48 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 49 of things according to their own ideas, and XXX.—Atheism based in its principles and laws on pure Naturalism.” Atheism is the system which is opposed to Its oath of initiation is simply horrible, j Theism, or belief in God. The God of Theism Taken on the Bible, it runs as follows : is a personal, supra-mundane, spiritual being, the First Cause, and Creator of the entire “I, in the presence of the great universe, including man. Hence those who architect of the Universe, ... do hereby masquerade under the names of Rationalists, and hereon solemnly and sincerely swear Freethinkers, Deists, Materialists, Pantheists, that I will always hide, conceal and never Agnostics, Positivists, and the like, are rightly reveal, any part or parts, any point or viewed as Atheists. points, of the secrets or mysteries of or All such in practice implicitly deny a belonging to Free and Accepted Masons. Personal God—the First, Efficient, Final Cause . . . These several points I solemnly swear of all things and distinct from the universe. to observe under no less penalty than to Fearing the name of atheist, they have invented have my throat cut across, my tongue torn a number of names to designate their God, such out by the root, and my body buried in as the Absolute, the Unknowable, the Reality, the sands of the sea. ... So help me the great Being (humanity), the Infinite, and God, &c.” so on. Mr. Gladstone (Contemporary Review, The Master Mason swears to assist a Master 1876), aptly described the motley crew of Mason, and “«extricate him from any difficulty, Atheists when he wrote of them : “By the whether it be right or wrong.” This oath Atheist 1 understand the man who not only obliges Masons to “ extricate ” a brother no holds off, like the sceptic, from the affirmative, matter how great a crime he is guilty of when but who drives himself or is driven to the he makes the sign of distress. Is it any wonder negative assertion in regard to the whole that eight Popes have condemned this society unseen, or to the existence of God.” and have cut off from the Church those who Then there is moral Atheism, of which a join it? 50 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION Protestant writer (Flint) says : “ Practical atheism is not a kind of thought or opinion, but a mode of life.” This kind of atheism is more correctly called godlessness in conduct, irrespective of any philosophical, moral or re­ ligious belief. Whilst materialists, agnostics and pantheists do not openly profess Atheism, it is clearly implied in all these systems. Giordano Bruno, Spinoza, and the French Encyclopedists of the eighteenth century ; Huxley, Darwin, Spenser, Haeckel (Monist) of later times, may fairly be included in the category of practical atheists. The Catholic Church teaches that human reason, used rightly, is able to establish the existence of God with complete certitude. XXXI.—Divorce AMONGST the evils of modern times, one of the greatest and most far-reaching is Divorce. It had its origin in the rejection by the sixteenth century “ Reformers ” of the sacramental nature of Matrimony. By ceasing to regard it as a sacrament they soon came to view it as a civil and social contract—rescindable by public authority for certain reasons and causes. This was simply going back to pagan ideas. FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 51 As they had rejected the authority of the Ecclesiastical Courts, they at first favoured taking appeals to the reigning prince or sovereign. Then mixed tribunals of laymen and clerics were tried, when various and con­ flicting decisions were arrived at. In England, during Elizabeth’s reign, new marriages were freely contracted after divorces were obtained. During Mary’s reign this prac­ tice had ceased. From 1602 till 1857 marriage and divorce were dealt with by ecclesiastical courts when, in the latter year, an Act of Parliament was passed, establishing a new civil court to deal with divorce and matrimonial causes. This Act was confined to England, and Ireland so far has escaped this evil legislation. Hence, Irish Courts have no jurisdiction to grant absolute divorce, that is, the dissolution of the marriage bond with the right to re-marry. In Italy, Spain (so far) and Portugal, no absolute divorce is allowed. In Canada absolute divorce is very rare. The countries where the ravages of divorce are most felt are England, the United States, France and Germany. In the United States its growth exceeds that of any modern nation - except Japan—a pagan country. The evil of divorce is increased m cases 52 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 53 where there are children. The Catholic and unworthy. Thus it concerns itself with Church’s teaching throughout the centuries has marriage and marital relations and the eradi­ been that the bond of a valid, consummated cation of hereditary diseases. Scientists who engage in such schemes marriage between Catholics is for life, to be dissolved only by death. Christ’s own words generally overlook the difference between the are decisive on this question : “ What God lower or irrational animals and human beings. has joined together, let no man put asunder.” There is a great difference between these two classes of beings, and they are separated by a (Matt, xix, 6.) i wide chasm which human genius can never bridge over. Human beings are discriminated XXXII.—Eugenics from the lower animals by the gifts of reason, EUGENICS is the name of a system which pro­ free will, and speech, and are endowed with an eternal destiny. poses to improve the racial qualities of future The Church makes bodily and mental culture generations—physically and mentally. Its subservient to morality and religion, whilst founder was Sir Francis Galton, a cousin of modern eugenics makes morality and religion Charles Darwin. He published in 1869 a book subservient to bodily and mental culture. To on Hereditary Genius, an inquiry into laws attain their aims, certain methods, such as and consequences.” surgical operations, are proposed by the Galton derived his main idea from the breed­ Eugenicists, but the moral effects to which they ing of the race-horse. Just as we can breed lead cannot be approved. In fact, they would horses for points, so also can we breed men for open the door to immoral practices which points. The movement includes more than would be a worse evil than the one intended to study, and aims at legislation, administration be avoided. and influencing human conduct. Segregation, if carried out with due safe­ The science is of two kinds, positive and guards for the feeble-minded, would be a lawful negative. The one encourages the parenthood method. The spirit of the Church is to extend, . of the.fit .and worthy, and the other discourages, rather than to curtail, the freedom of the inor rather prevents, the parentage of the unfit 54 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 55 dividual , and to oppose undue State inter precisely in virtue of their differences, which, ference with family rights. therefore, ought to be maintained and encouraged during their years of formation XXXIII._ CO-EDUCATION with the necessary distinction and correspond­ ing separation, according to age and circumOn this subject the Encyclical of Pope Pius XT, stances. These principles, with due regard to on The Christian Education of Youth contain.' time and place, must, in accordance with the following passage : Christian prudence, be applied to all schools, “ False also and harmful to Christian particularly in the most delicate and decisive Education is the so-called method of co· period of formation, that, namely, of adoeducation. This, too, by many of its sup· lescence—and in gymnastic exercises and porters, is founded upon naturalism and the deportment special care must be had of Chrisdenial of original sin, but by all upon a tian modesty in young women and girls, which deplorable confusion of ideas that mistakes a is so gravely imperilled by any kind of ex­ levelling promiscuity and equality for the hibition in public. legitimate association of the sexes. The “ Recalling the terrible words of the Divine Creator has ordained and disposed perfect Master: ‘Woe to the world because of union of the sexes only in matrimony, and with scandals,’ We most earnestly appeal to your varying degrees of contact in the family and solicitude and your watchfulness, Venerable society. Besides, there is not in nature itself. Brethren, against these pernicious errors, which fashions the two, quite different in which, to the immense harm of youth, are organism, in temperament, in abilities, any- spreading far and wide among Christian thing to suggest that there can be or ought to peoples.” be promiscuity', and much less equality, in the The Holy Father here raises a warning voice training of the two sexes. against co-education, firstly, during the period “ These, in keeping with the wonderful of adolescence, and secondly, within the designs of the Creator, are destined to comple· domain of athletic and gymnastic exercises, ment each other in the family and in society, r The period of adolescence would, generally 56 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 57 speaking, correspond to the secondary schoo.' with the Romans. The early Christians never burned their dead, but followed the personal period ; and the practice of identical gymnastic example oi their Divine Founder. The pagans, exercises for boys and girls is quite inadmissible to destroy faith in the Resurrection of the body, on grounds of modesty and morality. often cast the bodies of the martyrs into the Hence in secondary schools separation oi flames. the sexes is absolutely necessary, whilst it The third century writer, Minutius Felix, elementary’ schools and the universities co­ refutes the assertion that cremation makes the education may be allowable provided the in­ Resurrection impossible. “ Nor do w’e fear,” dispensable and effective safeguards of religious he writes, “ as you suppose, the mode of burial, teaching, careful supervision, and separate but we adhere to the old and better custom.” residence are fully maintained. Hence schools, Owing to the rapid progress of Christianity, the colleges and universities run on Godless lines practice of cremation had entirely ceased by should not be frequented by Catholic youths, the fifth century. and, above all, by Catholic girls. The Pope’s During the Middle Ages the placing of the words are decisive on this subject. body in the earth or tomb was a part of Chris­ tian burial. By the sixth century, the Church, in Rome and other places, had so far con­ XXXIV.—Cremation quered the prejudices of the past as to gain the Cremation means the burning to ashes of the privilege of burying her dead within the city bodies of the dead. It is the revival in Europe walls and in the churchyards. and America, in recent times, of the practice The Church has uniformly condemned the of very’ ancient pagan nations. There is no practice of cremation, and on good grounds ; trace of it among the Jewish people except in for, in recent times, it is knit up with the spirit times of war and pestilence. The Romans and of irréligion and materialism. It was the Free­ Greeks varied their practice—those believing masons who first obtained from various govern­ in a future life buried their dead, whilst those ments the recognition of the practice. It began who did not so believe, practised cremation. in Italy in 1873. The Church holds it unCicero tells us that burial was the oldest rite 58 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION I FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 59 seemly that the human body, once the living and has made very little progress in the temple of God, the instrument of heavenly countries where it is tolerated by law. Let us virtue, sanctified so often by the Sacraments, hope that it will never be seen in Ireland. should be finally subjected to a treatment which » filial piety, conjugal and fraternal love, revolts XXXV.—Mechanism against as inhuman. A strong medico-legal argument against ' Mechanism — as at present held by its cremation is that it destroys all signs oi votaries—is a materialistic theory’ which con­ violence, or traces of poison, thus making post- . ceives the world or universe as a vast self­ mortem examinations impossible, whereas moving machine, self-existing from all eternity, such can be held months after inhumation, devoid of all freedom or purpose, perpetually Cremation thus bars the way to the detection going through a series of changes, each new of violence and other grave crimes against the state necessarily emerging out of the previous human person. one, and passing into the new one. All this The advocates of cremation allege that assumes the absence of a Creator or Creation. cemeteries are a danger to public health by At one time, this theory rested mainly on two corrupting the soil, drinking water, and the air scientific props, namely, spontaneous genera­ itself. These statements have been proved to tion and the conservation of energy. The be unfounded. The most eminent chemists and former is now dead and buried, and the latter bacteriologists have shown by science and has been warned off from human beings by such experiments that well-arranged cemeteries are I eminent scientists as Lord Kelvin and Clerke not in the least injurious to the air or to water Maxwell, and is therefore not very helpful to wells. The waters in the cemeteries of Leipzig, Mechanism. Hanover, Dresden and Berlin were found pure Mechanism must be rejected as a formula for and clear—purer, in fact, than that of other the universe and for man. The battle between wells outside the boundaries of the places of Mechanism and its opposite, Vitalism, has the experiments. centred mainly around human life—its origin, Cremation is an inhuman, revolting practice, its nature, its composition and functions. 60 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION Mechanism holds that life is a product of physics and chemistry, that it can be reduced to two quantative realities, viz., mass and motion, and these again can be further reduced to mathematical equations. It excludes from its scientific purview such realities as forms, ends, causes, design, intelligence, mind, intellect, icill, freedom, morality. But to ex­ clude them does not get rid of them, or prove | their unreality. Living bodies possess many qualities not pos­ sessed by inanimate or lifeless bodies. The latter consist mainly of quantity, which of itself has only quantative properties, with no in­ trinsic, internal motive principle. We concede to the science of mechanics the merit due to many valuable discoveries and a multitude of valuable inventions for man’s use and benefit, one of which should be mentioned here, namely, the Drumm Battery’. Whilst Mechanism and Mechanists keep within their proper sphere, in their scientific pursuits—that is, within the material forces of nature, they are on safe ground—like MacGregor on his “ native heath.” But when they travel outside it and enter on the domains of philosophy, biology, psychology, etc., and limit their reasoning to their own pet science, I FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 61 they deserve to be treated as trespassers, and to be requested to “ get out.” Harvey’s maxim, “ omne vivum ex vivo I (all life is from life) has now been universally accepted by scientists, and has knocked the bottom out of spontaneous generation. Scientists also tell us that at one period of time no life could have subsisted on this earth of i ours. But the beginning of life must therefore have come from a living being, and the only living being then in existence was God, and He alone must have given life to the first living beings. This proof of Creation is a heavy blow to Mechanism and Mechanists. The doctrine of the cell and its growth and functions prove clearly that life is not ex­ plicable by the mechanical, physical and chemical properties of matter. Within the germ-cell there is a principle which builds up the organism after a definite plan, which con­ stitutes the manifold material of a single being ; which is intimately present in every part of it ; which is the source of its essential activities, and which determines its specific nature. Such is the vital principle. It is, therefore, in the scholastic terminology, the “ efficient cause of the living being. 62 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION XXXVI.—Christian Science Christian Science, an American sect started in 1879 by Mrs. Mary Baker Eddy, is a | theosophic, therapeutic, religious system of healing human ailments. It rejects doctrinal belief and medical treatment, and claims to depend on the application of scientific know­ ledge for the cure of sickness. It also claims a revival of the Apostolic healing of Christ. It speaks of Christ the Scientist ” and hence its name, “ Christian Science.” It purports to be a church without any creed ; and has as its official text-books Mrs. Eddy’s two works, “Science and Health” and the “ Manual.” The former contains the teachings and the rules for the healing of the sick and the saving of the sinner ; and the latter the tenets which must be subscribed to by those who obtain membership of the “ Church.” Christian Science claims to be essentially a method of healing—of curing both body and soul. It seeks “ the mental, moral and physical regeneration of mankind.” Mrs. Eddy asserted that Christ gave a command binding on all His followers to “ preach and heal.” Disease is mental error—the cure consists in convincing the patient of the error. Her FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 63 “ scientific statement of being ” is as follows : “ There is no life, truth, intelligence nor substance in matter. All is infinite mind and its infinite manifestation ; for God is all in all. Spirit is immortal truth ; matter is unreal and temporal. Spirit is God and man, His image and likeness. Therefore, man is not material, he is spiritual.” In Christian Science there are no sacraments and no prayer. Its chief error is the assumption that the miracles of Christ were merely natural actions, and that Christian Science confers the same power on its adherents. Mrs Eddy claimed Divine revelation in her discovery of Christian Science. Revelation does not come to such as Mrs. Eddy. Her system is neither Christian nor scientific. XXXVII .-Psycho-Analysis Psycho-Analysis means a process which leads to the disclosing of mental contents—both conscious and unconscious. It began as a therapeutic treatment of nervous diseases, but quickly developed into a general science of the unconscious—that is, the investigation of the content and workings of the unconscious mind, and the relations between the unconscious and conscious mental operations, 64 FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION It pretends to furnish a new basis for human activities, in art, education, morality and re­ ligion. “ It has supplied,” writes Dr. Tridon, not only physicians, but artists, thinkers, | sociologists, educators and critics with a new point of view. It offers to the average man and woman a new rational code of behaviour based on science instead of faith.” It puts the un­ conscious and abnormal mental states as only slightly different from the normal and conscious states. Thus what is most exalted in man is only a transformation of the vilest animal instincts. It is easy to see that psycho-analysis, as now understood, follows the evolutionary and materialistic trend of modem psychology and seeks to establish man’s relationship to the lower animal life. It thus strips man of every­ thing that constitutes his unique dignity. It assumes that because nervous diseases affect the mind, nerves and mind are, therefore, identical. But nerves are material, whilst mind, with its chief faculty, intellect, is im­ material and spiritual. Psycho-analysis has an elaborate technique and phraseology — complex, sublimation, symbols, dynamics, and the rest. Its advocates admit that in regard to abnormal mental states, 65 strong arguments may be drawn in favour of Catholic practices, such as Confession and Asceticism, which relieve the mind of remorse and other evil effects, and prevent future psychic disturbances. Psycho-analysis promises more than it can perform. As an interpretation of life and a basis of conduct it must be rejected without re­ serve. As chief protagonist, Dr. Freud has entirely reversed psychology—by making the unconscious the dominant factor in our mental life, and exalting the instinctive life above the rational and intellectual life. In this system, there is no room for freedom of the will which is the puppet of unconscious forces. For Freud, man is only a bundle of conflicting impulses, each of which is striving for mastery, whilst the mind is the passive on­ looker. The animal life is not only the sub­ stratum, but the actual source of the rational r and the spiritual life. On such a basis it is impossible to erect an anthropology that will do justice to the dignity of man. It degrades him as few systems of philosophy have ever done. It blots out the boundary line between sanity and insanity. It explains the normal activities of the mind on the same basis as the phenomena of the dise 3 66 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION eased mind. Art, religion, heroism, have the same source as crime, morbidity and per­ version. The unconscious is the key to every­ thing. The highest is nothing but the sublima- | tion of the lowest. The influence of such teaching cannot fail to be pernicious and subversive of morality and religion. I XXXVIII.—Individualism Individualism may be defined as “ the tendency to magnify individual liberty as against external authority, and individual activity against associated activity.” External authority here includes voluntary associations, and such forms of restraint as are found in general standards of conduct and belief. Through ail forms of individualism runs the note of self in opposition to either restraint or assistance from without. Individualism is three-fold—religious, ethical and political. Religious individualism is the mark of those who reject definite creeds or refuse to submit to any external religious authority, and who go by the name of free­ thinkers. In a less degree, all Protestants are individualists in religion, as they regard their FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 67 individual interpretation of the Bible as their final authority. On the other hand, Catholics accept the voice of the Church as the supreme authority and reject the principle of religious individualism. Ethical individualism is the making of the individual conscience or reason the sole guide of moral conduct. Here also Catholics are not individualists, as they accept the Law of God as the supreme rule, and the Church as the final interpreter of that Law. The autonomous morality of Kant ; the intuitionism of the Scottish school (Reid, Hamilton and Smith), the utilitarianism of Bentham, and Hedonism, are all forms of individualism. Political individualism is historically and practically the most important form of the system. It varies in degree from pure anarchism to the view that the State’s only proper functions are to maintain order and to enforce contracts. It is in the fields of economy and industry that individualists would reduce the functions of the State to a minimum that is consistent with the maintenance of social order and peace. According to the “ laissez faire,” or “ letalone ” school of economists—known also as the “Manchester School”—the State should 68 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION permit unrestricted competition, contracts and work in the field of industry ; its advocates oppose not only such public enterprises as State railways and telegraphs, but such restric- ' tive measures as factory regulations and laws governing the modes and times of employment for women and children. They also dis­ couraged all associations of employers and of workers. I Both of these were expressly approved by Leo XIII in the Encyclical Rerum Novarum (1891). Such measures are manifestly necessary for the protection of both employers and workers. Without them, the individual em­ ployer is exposed to injustice and injury by unnecessary and unreasonable strikes, and the worker to extortionate contracts and inadequate wages. Public necessity and public welfare are the best guides for politicians and legislators in all industrial and economic questions. There is no a priori principle or rule by which they can be decided. Legislation and State control may lessen the liberties of some individuals, but it may also increase the welfare and opportunities of the vast majority. In regard to the functions of the State, the Catholic position is neither individualistic nor , FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 69 anti-individualistic, but is determined by its conception of the requirements of individual and social welfare. In his Encyclical, The Social Order: Its Reconstruction and Perfec­ tion, Pope Pius XI puts forward for political and social reform the spiritual order of the Kingdom of God to be applied to the body politic. XXXIX.—Collectivism Collectivism means a system of industry in which the material agents of production would be owned and managed by the public—the collectivity. It is allied to Socialism on its economic side. Socialism goes far beyond Collectivism inasmuch as it comprises the international or Marxian idealogical foundation and the concrete movement that is striving to carry it out. Collectivism does not, theoreti­ cally, necessitate the despotic supremacy of a highly centralised State. The Collectivist ideal in general is a state organised on industrial lines in which each industry, whether local or national, and its workers, would be substantially autonomous, and in which government by persons would be replaced by administration of things. But the 70 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION vast scope given to local and provincial autonomy, and the very small part assigned to coercive and repressive activity, would prove fatal to its efficiency and stability. In this way, the wOrkers would lack the incentive to hard wyork that comes from fear of discharge, and would be under constant temptation to assume that they were more active and efficient than their equally-paid fellows in other workshops of the same class. Hence, sufficient centralisation to place the control of industry outside of the local unit or branch would seem to be indispensable. This would mean a combination of industrial and political power which could easily put an end to freedom of action, speech and writing. In such circumstances, a bare majority of voters might impose intolerable conditions on a minority almost equal in numbers, or an un­ scrupulous, self-constituted oligarchy might act thus to the entire populace as is at present being done in Soviet Russia, not only in the industrial sphere, but in many other departments of life. For Collectivism in practice there seems to be no middle course between inefficiency and despotism. Hence it would increase rather than lessen social ills and is obviously contrary to the interests of morality and religion. ________________________ — / FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 71 Furthermore, any collectivist régime which would seize private land or capital without compensation would violate the Catholic doc­ trine of the lawfulness of private ownership, and the unlawfulness of theft. In the Encyclical Rerum Novarum (on the conditions of labour) Pope Leo XIII clearly denounced those extreme forms of Socialism and Communism which aim at the abolition of all, or practically all, private property. In the same document he declares that man’s welfare demands private ownership of “ stable pos­ sessions,” and of “ lucrative property.” These pronouncements implicitly condemn Collectivism along with Socialism and Com­ munism as contrary to natural justice and the welfare of society. XL.—Euthanasia Euthanasia, as the word implies, is a system devised to bring about an easy, painless death. Its advocates say that three classes of people— criminals, the incurably sick and the insane— are doomed to a life of suffering, are a useless expense to the State, and should not be per­ mitted to live. George Ives, an American writer, in his 72 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION “History of Penal Methods,” says: “All criminals who cannot ultimately lead useful, human, tolerably happy lives, should be destroyed as soon as their condition has been determined. Many doctors and lawyers in the United States favour the system, and attempts have been made to have it legalised in several States.” The system is, without doubt, the outcome of the materialistic and atheistic teaching and training of State schools, colleges and univer­ sities in America. This system may be feasible enough when diseased dogs, horses and other animals are in question. Those who would apply it to human beings overlook the fact that human beings are in a totally different category from the lower animals—as possessing a soul as well as a body, reason, speech, with a future life and an eternal destiny—none of which the low’er animals possess. They also forget that there is a God, the Creator of human beings, Who alone has supreme dominion over the life which He gave to His creatures. This dominion does not belong to the civil powers, and any law authorising a committee of doctors, nurses and social workers to enter public institutions—much less private houses— and do away with the lives of inmates under FORTY CURRENT ERRONEOUS SYSTEMS 73 any pretext or authority whatever, would con­ travene and usurp the rights and supreme dominion of God, the Creator, over the lives of His creatures. Human life is from God, and belongs to Him alone. No one may, under any conditions, take the life of an innocent person. PART II CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY I.—The Family—The Fundamental Unit of Society—A Most Sacred Bond Let us begin by asking : What is Sociology? Sociology is the science which treats of man as a member of society, and of the manifes­ tations and laws which regulate, or should regulate, social life. It is governed by the re­ quirements of ethics, of the moral conscience, and of the norms of human conduct. Modern sociology shows a marked tendency towards agnosticism, materialism and determinism— the last-named rejecting the freedom of the will in human conduct. This tendency is seen more particularly in its philosophical aspects. Hence a sociology based on Catholic principles and Catholic philosophy is very much required at the present time. The devotees of modern sociology, even when viewing social facts and processes of a material nature, cannot refrain from assump­ tions contrary to the Christian outlook on life. 74 CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 75 We may here take Christian and Catholic as practically identical. The Christian view of life accepts, at the outset, as divinely warranted, the moral and social principles taught and re-enforced by Christ. Christian social philosophy did not derive its doctrine of human brotherhood from the logical process known as induction, but re­ ceived it directly from the lips of Christ. A Christian sociology, therefore, is one that always carries with it the philosophy of Christ. While modern sociology seeks to classify and account for human interests and social require­ ments without relation to the Divine Laws, Christian sociology is concerned mainly about the relation of social schemes, views and theories to the Laws and Revelation of God. Of the many subjects included in the science of sociology the one which stands in the forefront is the family. The family, and not the individual, is the fundamental unit of society. The Christian family is a supernatural institution founded upon the natural law. It has for its basis the permanent union of one man with one woman. This union in the Catholic Church is a Sacra­ ment of the New Law—raised to that dignity by Christ Himself when on earth. It confers 76 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION supernatural help on these joint founders of a family, enabling them to discharge the duties of their state, and to realise the supernatural destiny of themselves and their children. The man is the head of the family. The task of maintaining and protecting the family devolves on him and confers on him a certain authority. This authority is not an absolute power, but is in the nature of a trust, and neither wife nor children are his property. Husband and wife united are, as it were, a single organism, and their joint and harmonious efforts are needed for the proper upbringing and training of their children. Even under the Mosaic Law the parents in family life received honour in the fourth of the Ten Command­ ments— “ Honour thy father and thy mother ” — the three first Commandments enjoining the honour due to God Himself. Here the parents come next after God. It is true that divorce prevailed under the Old Law, but Our Lord swept awTay divorce and all its abuses by making Marriage a Sacrament and indissoluble by these words : “ What God has joined together let no man put asunder.” The bond remains till death, no matter how long or how far apart the parties may be separated from each other. In true CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 77 Christian Marriage, then, we have a position of stability and dignity given to woman which she never before enjoyed, and this position is the corner-stone of Christian civilisation. Her position before the coming of Christ was very low among all nations, civilised and un­ civilised. Among the barbarians, she fre­ quently became a wife by capture or purchase ; and even amongst the more advanced peoples she was generally her husband’s property, his chattel, his labourer. Infanticide, too, was practically universal, and the patria potestas of the Roman father gave him the right of life and death even over his grown-up children. From the permanence and unity of the mar­ riage bond there arises a real and definite equality of husband and wife. The wife is neither the slave nor the property* of the hus­ band, but his consort and companion. The Christian family is supernatural inasmuch as it originates in a Sacrament. Its end and ideal are likewise supernatural, namely, the salvation of children and parents, and the union of Christ with His Church. “ Husbands,” says St. Paul, “ love your wives as Christ also loved the Church and delivered Himself for it.” “So also ought men love their wives as their own bodies. He that 78 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION loveth his wife loveth himself.” (Ephesians v 25, 28.) The union of the married couple is the highest and most sacred of all human unions. It is strengthened and cemented by mutual affection, which impels each of them to seek the welfare of the other. When the marital union is blest with children, both feel a strong stimulus to put forward their best efforts for the welfare of their children. Amongst the dangers threatening the family are the following : divorce, birth control by artificial and immoral devices, undue State interference (Socialism and Communism), the idle and frivolous lives of women, both mothers and daughters ; the cinemas, talkies, theatres, bad novels, magazines and newspapers ; drunkenness, slum dwellings, industrial employ­ ment of women (especially mothers) and chil­ dren. In regard to divorce, there has never been a divorce court in Ireland, although our neighbour, England, has been well supplied with such institutions since 1857. The Catholic ideal of indissoluble marriage is the only sure barrier against this pestiferous social evil and its dangers to family life. CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 79 II. __ Conscience and Duty — Feelings Awakened by the Intimations of Conscience The two words, Conscience and Duty, are quite familiar to all people of average intel­ ligence and education. And yet there are very few wTho could, if asked, tell what these terms signify. Although they are really distinct, yet they are so connected that they can be best explained and understood when treated to­ gether. A third term arises out of them and is called moral obligation. We may take Con­ science as holding first place and as being the basis and root of the other two. What, then, is Conscience? Conscience is the practical judgment of right reason intimat­ ing the course of action to be followed in doing, or omitting, something, as conformable to the natural and Divine Law. Its functions and operations are manifold. That great philo­ sopher and sociologist, Cardinal Newman, calls it : A voice, or the echo of a voice, ‘ imperative ’ and ‘ constraining,’ like no other dictate in the whole of our experience. . . . The feeling of Conscience being a certain keen sensibility—pleasant or painful—self-approval 80 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 81 way and a wrong way open to me, and that the and hope or compunction and fear—attendant right way is better than the wrong way. on certain of our actions, which, in con­ For man, the course of action to be followed sequence, wTe call right or wrong, is two-fold; by him is indicated by his own nature. Unlike it is a moral sense and a sense of duty ; a judg­ the lower orders, he is master of his actions ment of the reason and a magisterial dictate.” over that part of his life which is called conduct. . . . Thus the phenomena of Conscience, as He is free to choose between two opposite a dictate, avail to impress the imagination with courses ; he can elect to do or not to do ; to do the picture of a Supreme Governor, a Judge, this action or another entirely opposed to, or holy, just, powerful, all-seeing, retributive.” different from, it. He can be guided in his (Grammar oj Assent, c. V.) choice of acts by the moral judgment involving Its intimations awake feelings of awre, re­ the “ ought ”—directed and strengthened by verence, love, fear, shame. When speaking of conscience and its dictates. conscience, men call it a Judge, a voice,—they It is a universal judgment that “ right is to say that they must answer to their conscience be done and wrong is to be avoided.” The for their conduct. Conscience is the accredited sentiment attending moral judgments is the representative of God ; He is the original source highest of all ; it awakens in us the feeling of of moral law and obligation, and disobedience reverence, and demands that all other senti­ to conscience is disobedience to Him. Infrac­ ments and desires, as motives of action, shall tion of the moral law is an offence against God be made subordinate to the moral judgment. and is called Sin. The sanctions of conscience, ♦ When action is conformed to this demand there self-approbation and self-reproach, are re­ arises a feeling of self-approbation, while an inforced by the supreme sanction—the Divine opposite course is followed by a feeling of selfNature itself. reproach. As the order of the universe is the Duty is “ something that one is bound to do product of the Divine Will, so also is the moral or to avoid : obligatory service. ’ When I say law which is expressed in the rational nature. “ I ought to do it ” about a contemplated act, God wills that we shape our free action or the judgment here asserts itself as imperative conduct to that form. Reason teaches us that and magisterial. It assumes that there is a right 82 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION we owe Him reverence, obedience, sendee, and that consequently we owe it to Him to observe that law which He has implanted within us as the ideal of our conduct. As religious faith declined, the tendency to find a non-religious base for Duty became more pronounced. The idea of duty faded ; new systems arose which, like our present-day “ independent morality,” had no place for moral obligations. Morality became divorced from religion, and thereby lost its Divine basis and sanction. By moral obligation we understand some sort of necessity, imposed on the will, of doing what is good and avoiding what is evil. This neces­ sity urges us to adopt the means required by an end for attaining that end. If necessity requires me to pay a sum of money at a certain place and time—say to a bank—there is a moral obligation on me to pay it, and take the steps needed to pay it to the lender at the place and time required. The obligation arising out of duty is peremp­ tory, sacred and universal, and is explicable only by calling to mind what man is, his origin, and his destiny. He is a creature made by God, His Creator, with Whom he is destined to live for all eternity. Cardinal Newman, in his CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 83 letter to the Duke of Norfolk (in reply to Gladstone’s “ Vaticanism ”), puts this doctrine in beautiful language : “ The Supreme Being is of a certain charac­ ter which, expressed in human language, is called ethical. He has attributes of justice, truth, wisdom, sanctity, benevolence and mercy, as eternal characteristics in His Nature, the very law of His being identical with Himself ; and next, when He became Creator, He implanted this Law, which is Himself, in the intelligence of all His rational creatures. The Divine Law, then, is the rule of ethical truth, the standard of right and wrong, a sovereign, irreversible, absolute authority in the presence of men and angels.” This law is the rule of our conduct under the guidance of con­ science. ... “ Conscience is not a long-sighted selfishness, nor a desire to be consistent with oneself ; but it is a messenger from Him Who, both in nature and in grace, speaks to us behind a veil, and teaches and rules us by His repre­ sentatives. Conscience is the aboriginal Vicar of Christ, a prophet in its informations, a monarch in its peremptoriness, a priest in its blessings and anathemas.” We can and do know that God, Whom as our Creator and Lord we are bound to obey, com- 84 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 85 mands us to do what is right and forbids us to do Pope Leo XIII (Rerum Novarum) advocates what is wrong. That is the eternal law, the Divine harmony between these two classes and con­ Reason or the Divine Will, which is the source demns the teaching of the Marxist school in of all moral obligations. Moral precepts are advocating a class war between employers and the commands of God, but they are also the workers. behests of right reason, inasmuch as they are “The great mistake,” he says, “ made in merely the rules of right conduct, by which a the matter now under consideration, is to take being such as man is should be guided. up with the notion that class is naturally hostile to class, and that the wealthy and the working­ men are intended by nature to live in mutual III.—Employer and Worker conflict. So irrational and so false is this view For practical purposes the two classes, that the direct contrary is the truth. Just as employers and workers, comprise the great the symmetry of the human frame is the result bulk of the peoples in all countries. The of the suitable arrangement of the different parts employing classes in point of numbers are only of the body, so, in a State, is it ordained by a small fraction as compared with the working nature that these two classes should dwrell in classes. The latter class includes employees of harmony and agreement so as to maintain the different grades and kinds, but the social ques­ balance of the body politic. Each needs the tion is mainly concerned with what is known other : Capital cannot do without Labour, nor as the labourers or manual workers at toilsome Labour without Capital. Mutual agreement occupations. » results in the beauty of good order, w’hile per­ Although employers and their workers are petual conflict necessarily produces confusion specifically distinct in many respects, yet in the and savage barbarity. work of production they are joint co-operators “ Now, in preventing such strife as this, and towards the same end. Their interests are in uprooting it, the efficacy of Christian institu­ therefore identical, and neither class can be tions is marvellous and manifold. First of all, really effective without the help and co­ there is no intermediary more powerful than operation of the other. Religion (whereof the Church is the interpreter 86 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY and guardian), in drawing the rich and the that he be not exposed to corrupting influences working class together by reminding each of ic and dangerous occasions, and that he be not duties to the other as enjoined by justice and led away, to neglect his home or to squander charity. Thus Religion teaches the labourer his earnings. Furthermore, the employer must and the artisan to carry out honestly and fairly never tax his workpeople beyond their strength, all equitable agreements freely entered into; nor employ them in work unsuited to their age never to injure the property, nor to outrage or sex. His great and principal duty is to give the person, of an employer ; never to resort to everyone what is just. Doubtless, before violence in defending their own cause, nor to deciding whether wages are fair, many things engage in riot or disorder ; and to have nothing have to be considered ; but wealthy owners and to do with men of evil principles, who work all masters of labour should be mindful that to upon the people with artful promises of great exercise pressure on the indigent and the results, and excite foolish hopes which usually destitute for the sake of gain, and to gather end in useless regrets and grievous loss. one’s profit out of the need of another, is con­ Religion teaches the wealthy owner and demned by all laws human and divine. the employer that their workpeople are not to “ To defraud anyone of wages that are his be accounted their bondsmen ; that in even' due is a crime which cries to the avenging anger man they must respect his dignity and work as of heaven. ‘ Behold, the hire of the labourers a man and a Christian ; that labour for wages . . . which by fraud has been kept back by you, is not a thing to be ashamed of, if we lend ear crieth ; and the cry of them hath entered into to right reason and to Christian philosophy, but the ears of the Lord of Sabaoth ’ (James v, 4). is to a man s credit, enabling him to earn his “ Lastly, the rich must religiously refrain living in an honourable way; and that it is from cutting down the workman’s earnings, shameful and inhuman to treat men like chattels whether by force, by fraud, or by usurious to make money by, or to look upon them merely dealing, and comply with all the other obliga­ as so much muscle or physical strength. tions, and with greater reason, because the “ Hence the employer is bound to see that labouring man is, as a rule, weak and un­ the worker has time for his religious duties; protected. and because his slender means CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 88 89 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION employer against unfair competition by his should, in proportion to their scantiness, be rivals, and enable him to forecast his costs of accounted sacred. production with greater accuracy than if no “ Were these precepts carefully obeyed and standard rate or uniform conditions existed. followed out, would they not be sufficient of The employers, too, have certain legitimate in­ themselves to keep under all strife and all its terests in common, and have a perfect right to causes?” unite for the defence or promotion of those Leo XIII lays down that both workers and interests. employers have a right to form associations In England there are employers’ associations for all legitimate purposes. He praises the in all the chief industries, with distinct asso­ medieval guilds, and warmly commends exist­ ciations for manufacturers and merchants. ing associations, not only those which comprise There is no reason why the great organisations both workers and employers, but also those of capital and labour should be hostile to each confined to workers only. Herein he is other. By sincere and cordial co-operation opposed to the individualistic spirit and teach­ they could render invaluable service to the ing of the classical economists. cause of social order. The trade union The utility of well-directed unions amongst organisation can be of service to the employer, the working classes is unquestionable. Trade and conversely the employers’ associations can union organisation is necessary, in order that be of advantage to the workers. the average worker may be on a more equal If goodwill exists, the contact of organised footing for bargaining with the employer. labour with organised capital cannot fail to be Employers themselves are coming more and beneficial to both. It is this contact which it more to recognise that trade union organisation is most essential to secure, for without it these has advantages from their own point of view. organisations may prove a cause of class­ It is much easier to negotiate about wages hostility. By means of this contact the and other conditions of labour with a union than de jacto co-operation existing in industry will with a large number of unauthorised workers. be strengthened by a consciousness of mutual A standard wage-rate and uniform conditions interest. of labour throughout an industry protect an 90 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 91 part of the Encyclical, the Pope says : ” If a workman’s wages be sufficient to enable him to Wages denote the price paid by an employer support himself, his wife and his children, he for human exertion or labour. Wherever men will find it easy, if he be a sensible man, to have been free to sell their labour they have practise thrift and to put by some little savings, regarded compensation for it as involving and thus secure a modest source of income.” questions of right and wrong ; and this con­ From this passage it would seem that the mind viction has been shared by mankind generally of the Pope is that wages should be sufficient to in all Christian countries. enable him to support his wife and family and To-day, Catholic teaching on the question of I save something in addition. This claim, how­ wages is quite precise on one aspect of the case, ever (for wife and family), seems to arise from viz., the minimum or lowest standard payable. charity rather than from strict justice. Pope Leo XIII, in the oft-quoted Encyclical In another place the Pope commends house­ Rerum Novarum, lays it down in these words: work as more suitable for women than industry, There is a dictate of nature more ancient and thereby implies that the wife must be sup­ and more imperious than any bargain between ported out of her husband’s w’ages. Hence a man and man, that the remuneration must be Catholic can hardly claim to be faithful to the sufficient to support the wage-earner in reason­ instructions of Rerum Novarum unless he does able and frugal comfort. If through necessity all in his power to obtain for every honest and or fear of a worse evil the workman accepts industrious worker a wage at least sufficient to harder conditions, because an employer or con­ enable him or her to live a decent life, together tractor will give him no better, he is the victim with the means to discharge his or her family of force and injustice.” obligations. Here the Pope lays down the principle of a In order to carry out this duty, firstly, minimum (lowest) wage for the labourer himself, the conditions of industry’ should be normal, but does not mention his wife and family. This and secondly, the family allowance system by omission has given rise to a good deal of employers should be encouraged by both trade controversy amongst Catholics. In another unions and employers’ associations. IV,—Wages 92 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 93 The Pope did not lay down any fixed In England it is estimated that the urban standard for just wages in the face of the various population includes nearly half a million interests involved, but he indicated the road workers with families of three or more children to a solution if the parties cannot agree, viz., with an income of less than 60/- a week. They arbitration. When wage disputes are sub­ are thus unable to pay the rents of decent mitted to fair arbitration, all the factors of the sanitary houses, and are obliged to live in slum dispute are taken into account and accorded dwellings. due weight in conformity wdth practical justice. Authoritative Catholic teaching does not go “Amongst the several purposes of a Society,” beyond the minimum (lowest) wage, and does not declare what would be the completely just , the Pope says, “ one should be to arrange for a continuous supply of work at all times and compensation. It admits that the worker may often receive more than the minimum, but does seasons ; as well as to create a fund out of which not attempt to define precisely this larger justice the members may be effectually helped in their with regard to any class of wage-earners. And needs, not only in cases of accident, but also wisely so ; for, owing to the many distinct in sickness, old age and distress. features of production and distribution, the It is clear that they must pay special and matter is exceedingly difficult and complicated. chief attention to the duties of religion and Different interests have to be considered. morality ; and that social betterment should From the side of the employer : energy ex­ have this chiefly in view. Let our Associations, pended, risk undertaken, and a return on his then, look first and before all things to God ; capital; from the side of the labourer: needs, let religious instruction have therein the fore­ toil, productivity, sacrifices and skill ; from that t most place, each one being carefully taught of the consumer: fair prices. In any just what is his duty to God ; what he has to believe, system of compensation, all these elements what to hope for, and how he is to work out have to be considered. If all the factors con­ his salvation, and let all be warned and cerning capital and labour were agreed on, the strengthened with special care against false problem of the consumer or buyer would still > principles and false teaching. remain. “ Let the wOrkingman be urged and led to 94 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION the worship of God, to the earnest practice of religion, and among other things to the keeping holy of Sundays and holy days. Let him learn to reverence and love Holy Church, the com­ mon mother of us all ; and hence to obey the precepts of the Church, and to frequent the Sacraments since they are the means ordained by God for obtaining forgiveness of sins and for leading a holy life. Some trade associations are managed on principles ill-according with Christianity and the public well-being ; they do their utmost to get within their grasp the whole field of labour, and force workingmen either to join them or starve. Under these circum­ stances, Christian workingmen must do one of two things : either join associations in which their religion will be exposed to peril or form associations among themselves.” These are the very words of Pope Leo XIII, and should be laid to heart by Catholic work­ men in every' country. He lays down this general principle, that “ neither justice nor humanity permits the exaction of so much work that the soul becomes deadened by excessive labour and the body succumbs to exhaustion.’ In fixing the maximum length of the workingday, the nature of the work and the age and sex of the worker must be taken into account. I CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 95 In regard to the nature of the work, the Pope singles out the mining industry as one with strong claims to a shorter day. We might well add iron and steel works to that of mining. An international scheme to secure uniform conditions of labour is very desirable in the interests of both workers and employers. Without it, home industries are constantly ex­ posed to the competition of foreign goods pro­ duced under sweated conditions. Failing this, prohibitive tariffs should be imposed, to exclude such commodities altogether. Pope Leo XIII wrote to M. Decurtius in Belgium, as follows, in 1893 : It is obvious that the protection given to the workers would be very imperfect if it were secured only by national legislation, for on account of international competition, the regu­ lation of labour conditions here or there would lead to the expansion of the industry of one nation to the detriment of that of another.” On the point of the worker’s age, the Pope utters a grave warning against child labour. V.—Arbitration Arbitration in general is a method of settling disputes between two parties by referring them 96 CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION to the judgment and decision of one or more outsiders. The disputants, in agreeing to arbi­ tration, thereby implicitly agree, in advance, to the decision of the arbitrators on the ques­ tions submitted to them for settlement. Recourse to arbitration becomes necessary* when the parties concerned obstinately refuse to come to terms. It is assumed that the sense of fairness is dulled in the disputants by self­ interest and obstinacy ; and that the judgment of a capable and disinterested outside party is more likely to conform to justice and equity. The good of society requires that economic force as a sanction of right should be set aside in the settlement of disputes; and that the ethical principles of right and wrong should be substituted for it. Law courts and their officials undertake the compulsory settlement of cases in which no other method of settlement can be devised. Disputes between employers and labourers generally have reference to the rate of wages, r the formal recognition of labour unions as having the right to a voice with the employer in determining the rate of wages, hours and methods of work, and kindred things, all of which seem reasonable enough in order to pro­ tect the rights and claims of the workers. As I 97 a rule, the labour union, and not the individual worker, is a party to the industrial conflict. J The individual worker is not in a condition of equality with the employer. And so, on the other hand, a single employer is not on an . equality with an organised labour union, and consequently organisations of employers have been established to deal with labour unions in their corporate capacity. In past times, serious conflicts have arisen in the industrial world, and no legal enactments existed to terminate them. People then began to turn to non-legal, rather than legal, methods of procuring industrial peace. The methods adopted for this purpose have been arbitration, conciliation, mediation, trade agreements, joint conferences, and shop committees. In a very large area of the industrial field, relations are peaceful. So also are the relations between employers and labour unions without any formal provisions in anticipation of trouble, whilst peaceful relations between these two classes exist through formal, mutual under­ standings, and oral or written contracts. In such cases, the accredited representatives of employers and of labour unions meet in a friendly spirit, discuss all questions bearing on the contract of labour, reach conclusions, and 4 98 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 99 When employers and labour unions arrange embody them in some form of definite understanding for a given period. In such cases, the terms oi the labour contract formally for a provision is usually made for the peaceful settle­ definite period the process is called Trade ment of unforeseen minor disputes. Agreement or collective bargaining. When All this shows that to a large extent industrial differences of any kind arise, if the parties peace exists between employers and workers. themselves arrange an amicable settlement, the However, it still remains possible that disagree­ process is called Conciliation. The interven­ ment, estrangements and war may arise between tion of outside parties who seek to induce the employers and workers. The possibility of a disputants to arrive at a peaceful settlement of strike or lock-out must be envisaged and, as far I their differences is called Mediation. as possible, provided against. The strike and Com pulso ry arbitration is not favoured by the lock-out bring with them a trail of grave labour unions, employers and the general and varied evils. The war thus declared is public in any country. It is most strongly analogous to that of military forces in action. opposed in the United States. New Zealand It is a struggle of economic forces between is the only country where compulsory arbitra­ employers and workers. The injuries thus tion has been legalised. In the United States, inflicted are not confined to the actual com­ organised labour speaks strongly in favour of batants. The public at large suffer heavily voluntary arbitration. It deplores strikes, pro­ from dislocation of business, social disorder and vides careful scrutiny and a thorough test of financial losses. feeling before permitting strikes, and generally If the parties at variance fail to reach a settle­ provides for an appeal to conciliation or ment, and the representatives of the public, arbitration in all industrial disputes. civil, religious and charitable organisations fail A remarkable expression of public opinion is to induce them to reach an agreement, then seen in the creation of the National Civic the disputants should be asked to place the issue Federation (U.S.A.), which has worked well in with an outside disinterested tribunal and abide the interests of industrial peace. Under its by the decision of such a body. When this is auspices, representatives of employers, of done, the process is called Arbitration, labouring men, of political life, of churches, of 100 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION academic circles, have met in conventions and endeavoured to establish industrial peace through trade agreements, conciliation and voluntary arbitration. The action of Cardinal Manning in the London Dock Strike in 1889; the activity of Archbishop Ireland in the National Civic Federation, and of several other Catholic Bishops ; the public approbation of Cardinal Gibbons ; the activity of many Catholic priests—all serve to show that Catholic leaders recognised the value of conciliation and arbi­ tration in promoting industrial peace. In France, Germany, Belgium and Italy the Catholic attitude is equally strong. In these countries, the endorsement of the organisation of labour is emphatic, and representative Catholics demand the recognition of labour organisations, boards of conciliation and arbi­ tration, all of which are in conformity with the spirit and teaching of Pope Leo XIII, who in his Encyclical on the condition of the working classes strongly approves of conciliatory » methods in arranging disputes between labour and capital. It is not to be inferred, however, that arbi­ tration is a complete cure for industrial dis­ putes. It generally covers only a term or period for which the decision is made. It does not CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 101 eradicate the evils to which it is applied. Besides, there are issues between employers and labourers which will not be submitted to arbitration ; fundamental rights claimed by each i party and held to be beyond the realms of dis­ pute. For instance, the labour union will not submit the question of the right of the labourer to join a union, or the right of the union to represent its members. Leo XIII virtually con/ cedes them these rights in approving of such unions. On the other hand, the employer would not submit to arbitration his right to manage his own business. There are, however, many minor questions arising between capital and labour which can and ought to be settled by peaceful methods. VI.—The Strike The strike is a method of enforcing the claims of a body of workers by ceasing to work for an employer. It is generally entered on by the advice of the union to which the particular class of workers belongs. It is seldom entered on by workers on their own initiative, but some­ times it is entered on and persisted in without the advice and in defiance of the efforts of the union leaders. - · ' : '· · In the United States, the Labour' Unions 102 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 103 The claims of the workers must be based on have generally discouraged strikes until every right and justice ; other method has been fully tested. In .4 peaceful solution must have been tried and Ireland, some labour and trades unions are found ineffective ; directed from England, or affiliated to English The grievance must outweigh the evil results unions ; and it has more than once happened which may follow from the strike; and that the emissaries of English labour unions There must be good grounds for hoping that have “ called out ” workers who were not the strike will be successful. inclined to “go out,” and, having gone out, were obliged to return at the old wage. It To support a strike by violent methods, such as would be much better for Irish workers to the destruction of the employer’s property, is have their unions entirely independent of against justice and charity, and is indefensible. English unions, and worked on the basis of Picketing is a common method of sustaining Catholic morality. a strike. If it is free from physical violence or In regard to strikes, the worst kind is that known as the “ lightning strike, ” by which grave intimidation, and if the claims of the workers suddenly quit their work without any strikers are manifestly just, it need not be for­ warning to their employers or advice from their bidden or condemned. To ascertain the con­ unions. They thus alienate public feeling and ditions justifying it is a matter of considerable are left without any help or advice from any difficulty, and sometimes impossible. An quarter. Such strikes generally end in disaster impartial public opinion is the safest guide in and sometimes with complete loss of employ­ such cases. ment. It is safe to say that that kind of strike When a strike involves public services such is much more difficult to justify than the as post-office work, railways and ’buses, or the ordinary strike. . supplying of necessaries to public institutions The strike is an extreme method, and should such as hospitals, colleges and the like, grave not be employed unless certain grave con­ inconveniences are inflicted on various classes ditions are verified. To justify a strike, the | of people who are outside the parties to the following conditions are required : dispute entailing the strike. In other words, 104 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION the innocent are punished and perhaps injured by the strike. Hence, strikes involving such consequences should be avoided, or provision made for continuing such necessary services. Violence and disorder on the part of strikers is almost always unlawful, whether directed against employers or against those who take their places in work. It is practically certain that the evils resulting from violent methods are always greater than any benefits accruing from them. Such evils generally extend to the entire community whose interests are above those of any particular class. The worker’s claim to his job may place an obligation on his employer not to discharge him in cases in which grave inconvenience would be entailed on the worker. For ex­ ample, a man with a family and a house in the place where he works, if discharged, might not be able to get employment at his trade from any other employer. It would require a grave reason to justify an employer in discharging such a worker. On the other hand, labourers who quit their · employment without a sufficient reason would act unjustly towards their employer. Employers often enter into contracts and commitments, which must be fulfilled within specified time w CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 105 limits, and the cessation of work by employees might render such obligations impossible of ful­ filment, and cause serious loss to the employers. One of the most difficult features of strikes is the one arising from those who take the places of the strikers. Two things may be admitted, viz., that if the strike is unreasonable on the face of it, those who take the places of the strikers are justified in doing so ; whilst, on the other hand, if the strike is justifiable, those who take the places of the strikers act wrongly, un­ less their needs are very grave and pressing. If they are known to be professional strike­ breakers the presumption is against them. The sympathetic strike takes place when workers who have no personal grievance quit work in order to aid their fellows. In railways, factories, and such like, one section of workers may go on strike whilst another section has no grievance of its own ; but the second section also goes on strike to compel the employers to do justice to the others. This is somewhat of an unusual and extreme form of strike. In principle, it is analogous to the case of a strong nation, or a strong man, coming to the aid of a weak nation or a weak man when assailed by a stronger nation or stronger man. In order to justify this kind of 106 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION strike, which is directed against an employer with whom the sympathetic strikers have no quarrel, the strike of the party to be assisted should be a justifiable one. This form of strike may sometimes be directed against an employer not connected with either section of strikers. For instance, brickmakers might go on strike against their own employer with whom they have no quarrel because he supplies bricks to a builder or mer­ chant whose workers are on strike. This form of sympathetic strike is rarely, if ever, justified. Strikes of every kind are dangerous weapons, and require to be very carefully handled and not used except in extreme and pressing cases of injustice and oppression, which no other methods can remedy. The great and effective method of warding off strikes is for both workers and employers to co-operate cordially in furtherance of their mutual interests. The labourer should give an honest day’s work, and the employer pay him an honest and just wage. When disputes arise, by far the best mode of settlement is arbitration. Collective bargain­ ing between the labour unions and the em­ ployers’ associations is also an effective safe­ guard for the interests of both classes. Hasty CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 107 strikes and hasty lock-outs are both very dangerous actions, particularly while Socialistic and Communistic teachings are so insistent on warfare between Capital and Labour with the avowed object of destroying civil society. VII.—The Boycott Both the name and the practice of the boycott originated over half-a-century ago—in 1880. At that time, one Captain Boycott was land agent for Lord Erne, and resided near Ballin­ robe, on the shores of Lough Mask, in County Mayo. This land agent refused the rent re­ ductions asked for by the tenants, and issued processes of ejectment. The tenants attacked the process-server and drove him to take shelter in the agent’s house. They then acted on a plan previously sug­ gested by Parnell at a meeting in Ennis. It had the merit of avoiding murder and other violent methods. Partly by persuasion and partly by threats, they got Captain Boycott’s servants and labourers to leave him. “ No one would save his crops, no one would drive his car, the smith would not shoe his horses, the laundress would not wash for him, the grocer would not supply him with goods ; even 108 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY the post-boy was warned not to deliver his letters.” Fifty Ulster Orangemen then came to Lough Mask, escorted by police and military and with two held pieces. They saved the Captain’s crops, valued at £350, but at an estimated cost to the State and to the Orange Society of £3,500; and, before they left, Lough Mask House was vacant, as Captain Boycott had fled to England. The word boycott then became incorporated in the English language, and of all the weapons used in the Land League agitation none was more dreaded by the landlords and their friends. The boycotting which was practised in con­ nection with the “ Plan of Campaign ” was condemned in a decree of the Holy Office, dated April 20th, 1888. It is not surprising that this weapon, having proved so effective in defeating the aims of rack-renting landlords, should, in course of time, be extended to industrial disputes between workers and employers. Its applica­ tion to good and upright employers would be immoral and unjustifiable. On the other hand, where workers have a clear and strong 1 D’Alton’s History of Ireland, Vol VI, p. 287. I 109 grievance against an employer the boycott is not necessarily wrong in every case, if due attention is paid to the claims of justice and charity. It is somewhat akin to what is known as the sympathetic strike. The boycott extends beyond the limits of the ordinary7 strike, for it seeks to deprive the boy­ cotted person of all social intercourse in addition to stopping the works that may be in dispute. It is called a primary boycott when it is directed against the person with whom the boycotters have a dispute, and a secondary boycott when directed against a person who refuses to join in the boycott. The morality of the primary boycott depends on the nature of the grievance that the boycotters have against the boycotted person and the means by which it is prosecuted. If the employer has treated the workers fairly and justly, so that they have no real grievance, they are guilty of injustice towards him when they organise and carry on a boycott against him. Every man has the right to seek and obtain material goods and opportunities on reasonable terms, and without unreasonable interference. This is the real basis of even property rights, and the justification of property titles. Hence it is a violation of justice to de- 110 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION prive a man of the benefits of social or business intercourse without a sufficient reason. However, there may be a sufficient reason, as when the injustice inflicted on the employees is grave, and when no milder method will be effective. But the boycott must be kept within the limits of justice and charity in its process and extent. It must be free from violence and other immoral circum­ stances, and must not be carried so far as to deny its object the necessaries of life or of those acts of social intercourse which are demanded by fundamental natural rights. A boycott re- ! fusing admission of a sick or wounded person to an hospital, and, still worse, the refusal to allow the necessary requisites for the burial of de­ ceased boycotted persons—such extreme and unnatural methods would be shocking viola­ tions of both justice and charity and never justifiable as boycotts. Besides the boycott against employers who treat their workers unfairly, there are lawful boycotts which have much wider application, and which are necessary and beneficial to whole communities. Such are the boycotts of bad newspapers, magazines, books, theatres, pictures, cinemas. The evils inflicted on multitudes of people by these agencies are far- CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 111 reaching as compared with unfair treatment of workers by employers. The owners of these agencies have no right to corrupt others for the purpose of money-making ; and the loss of money inflicted on them by a lawful boycott is only a material loss which can bear no com­ parison with the moral and spiritual injury in­ flicted on many people by these agencies. Hence to persuade, exhort and induce people to avoid them is a lawful boycott, and fully justifiable in the public interest. The secondary boycott is directed against “ innocent third persons,” that is, those who refuse to assist in the primary boycott. For instance, the labourers refuse to buy from a trader who wfill not cease from buying from a manufacturer against whom they have a grievance. In principle, it is the same as the sympathetic strike, and in practice is likewise immoral except in extreme cases. But the secondary boycott is not always and essentially wrong. VIII.—Property One of the most important subjects treated in modem times by sociologists and social re­ formers is Property7. Socialists and Com- 112 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 113 or individual property. The true morality of munists of the extreme type put forward most private property is laid down by Pope Leo XIII extravagant and impracticable view’s and as follows : theories on the subject of property. They Private ownership of land and of other material advocate the abolition of private ownership of goods is “ in accordance with the law of nature. property and its compulsory transference to the To possess private property as one’s own is a State or community, without any compensation. right given to man by nature.” This right in­ Such a doctrine is in direct conflict with Chris­ cludes the power not only to use material goods tian principles. It is downright and unjusti­ but to keep them in one’s possession. It applies fiable robbery and an attempt to replace the to the soil itself as well as to its fruits. Seventh Commandment of God by a new, man­ The Pope calls the socialisation of private made one, destructive of both the natural and the divine law. possessions the main tenet of Socialism. Property, in its wide sense, may be taken to “ Socialists,” he says, “ are striving to do include every kind of goods of which a person away with private ownership of goods, and, in has the full right of disposal as far as is not for­ its place, to make the property of individuals bidden by law. This, strictly speaking, applies common to all, to be administered by munici­ only to absolute ownership. There may be also palities or the State.” qualified ownership—such as right to the use of This wOuld be highly injurious to the worker a thing whilst the substance of it belongs to in preventing him from investing his savings in another. Lands, houses, trade-plants and tools, productive property and by confiscating his in­ moneys, food-stuffs, investments—all these are vestments if already made ; it WOuld involve the properties, productive, distributive, con­ State in action outside its sphere ; it would intro­ sumable, and all admit of ownership. duce social disorder, and, above all, it is against Ownership may be private or public, and this justice as violating the right given to man by­ distinction is most important, as the fight be­ nature. The Pope does not deny- to munici­ tween Catholic moral teaching on this question palities and States the right to own propertyr and that of modern materialism now centres when the public welfare requires such owner­ around the question of the lawfulness of private ship, but he insists on the right of individuals t. 114 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION also to possess and own it themselves to the ex­ clusion of the State and everyone else. The Pope is insistent that the ownership of property entails certain duties and rejects the idea of irresponsible ownership. He rejects the Socialist denial of the right to own any private property whatever. Fred Henderson, a lead­ ing English Socialist, writes as follows : Socialism is an attack upon the institution of private property in land and capital. We, Socialists, advocate the expropriation of the landed and capitalist class. This it is which our opponents describe as confiscation and robbery. . . . It is private ownership of land and capital that is confiscation and robbery, daily and con­ tinuous confiscation, enabling the proprietor class to quarter themselves in perpetuity upon the labour of the nation, to live by levying tribute, by stripping industry of wealth as fast as industry produces it.” (The Case for Socialism, 1924.) The Pope would reply that the ownership of land and capital is not unjust unless the rent or interest charged is excessive, but then it is not the ownership, but the rent or interest, that is unjust, and should be curtailed by legisla­ tion. The ownership of the instruments of pro­ duction is necessary for supplying the owner’s CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 115 needs, present and future, and he can supply these needs by using land and capital. Mere consumption goods will not be sufficient for all possible contingencies and risks of human life. Land and capital are not perishable by nature, and, therefore, endure for the production of necessaries and utilities. The Pope argues that nature intends man to make provision for his present and future needs. If he is to do this satisfactorily, he must be able to acquire con­ sumption goods and instruments of production as his own property. Of all the instruments of production, land is the most enduring and affords the greatest security to its owner. He has, therefore, a natural right to acquire and possess land and other instruments of production (capital, etc.), as his own private property. Henry George argued against private property on the ground that the land is God’s gift to the whole human family for the general welfare and that, there­ fore, individuals have no right to appropriate any part of it. The Pope answers briefly that God has, indeed, given the land to mankind so that all may draw- substance from it, but that the institution of private property in land does not of itself interfere with this intention of the Creator. 116 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION No proof can be adduced that He forbade men to divide the land amongst private owners, or to acquire land as private property by their own exertions. George and others admit that a man has a right to own what he himself has produced by his labour. If we suppose a man to cultivate a piece of land which belongs to no one, the improvements effected by his labour belong to him, and it follows that he has a right to own the land thus improved, and from which the improvements are inseparable. If the land belongs to another, all he can claim is compen­ sation for his labour and the value of the im­ provements. Another argument in favour of the right to private property in productive goods, put for­ ward by the Pope, arises from the nature of the family. A man is under the obligation of pro­ viding for his dependent children. The family is a natural society, closely bound together by the bonds of nature, with a natural end of its own. It has consequently a right to the natural means for securing that end. Productive pro­ perty, giving some security against the risks of life, is one of those means, so that the father, representing the family, has the natural right to own it. The right to own property is unques­ tionable, but that right is by no means unlimited. CATHOLIC SOCIOLOGY 117 “ If wealthy capitalists were more conscious of their moral duties in regard to their property, and were more anxious to pay at least a family living wage to every adult workman in their employment than to increase their own bank balance, the tendency to great inequality in the distribution of property would be largely checked. . . . Capitalists may attack the inter­ vention of the State as being ‘ Socialistic,’ but the fact remains that it is rendered necessary precisely because capitalism, heedless of the moral obligations attached to wealth and power, has failed to provide the workers as a class with the means of acquiring private property of their own.” 1 * Catholic Social Principles, by Fr. Watt, SJ. ORGANISED CATHOLIC ACTION PART III ORGANISED CATHOLIC ACTION And How It Could Be Strengthened If a country is invaded by the armed forces of a hostile country, the duty and the work of resisting these forces devolve upon the forces— actual and potential—of the invaded country’. These latter forces are recruited, trained and instructed in the knowledge necessary to make an efficient defensive fighting force; and they are composed of soldiers, officers and generals of various grades and ranks. This foreign aggression is not always of a military character, but is sometimes directed against cherished principles, beliefs and prac­ tices, which are far above all purely material interests. Of the latter kind is the campaign, of which we see evidence in our own midst, by Communists, directed by Godless Soviet Russia. Communism is, therefore, the invading enemy to be attacked—repulsed and routed by us, before it has time to entrench itself. How is this to be done? It is to be done by Organised Catholic Action. What is Organised Catholic Action ? 118 119 Catholic Action has been defined by the Pope himself for all countries where Catholicism is found as: ‘‘the participation and the col­ laboration of the laity with the Apostolic Hierarchy.” Two things are here laid down— first, it must include the co-operation of the laity; and, secondly, the work of Catholic Action must be carried on under the authority’ of the Hierarchy in every country. But, for organised Catholic Action something more is required, and, for us here in Ireland, it is necessary to discover how and where that additional something is to be obtained. Fortunately, this necessary machinery seems to be at hand in the various Catholic societies at present operating in the country. How’ are these societies to collaborate in one grand phalanx to do battle in the noble cause of Catholicism? Must they form new societies or change their present names or rules? By no means : such a process w’ould be inconvenient and cause undue delay, w’hereas prompt action is urgently needed. Each of them can simply add to their usual activities a new activity’— namely, Catholic Action on approved lines and in conformity’ with ecclesiastical authority. We might call this the mobilisation of our forces. In warfare, active operations follow quickly on ιί rl 120 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION mobilisation. And so with the forces of Catholic Action. Having first obtained the approval of the Apostolic Hierarchy, they should attack the enemy without avoidable delay. For truly successful Catholic Action, the pulpit, the press and the platform are powerful auxiliaries, and it is earnestly to be hoped that our Irish newspapers, daily and weekly, will give a sincere and loyal co-operation. The press is for adults what schools and colleges are for children and youths. It is to be hoped also that our three University Colleges will furnish valuable help, and that political parties will not be found unmindful of the interests of the Catholic Faith in Ireland. The A.B.C. of Communism gives the follow­ ing as part of its programme : The Church must be entirely separated from the State, and its property confiscated; religion must not be taught in the schools, and the Church must have no power over educa­ tion ; and in order to prevent children being influenced by the religious teaching they might receive from their parents, Communists must see to it that the school assumes the offensive against religious propaganda in the home, so that from the very outset the children’s minds ORGANISED CATHOLIC ACTION 121 shall be rendered immune to all those religious fairy7 tales which many grown-ups continue to regard as truth.” Here we have aims so horrible that Satan himself must have inspired them. They im­ peratively demand a chorus of condemnation and execration from all the Catholic societies of Ireland. SOVIET PROPAGANDA Soviet propaganda puts in the forefront of its programme the amelioration of the wOrkers’ conditions—better wages, better food, better houses, shorter hours—whilst keeping in the background its real objects, the destruction of Religion (especially of the Catholic Religion), of social order and lawful authority ; continual class-warfare, strikes and violent methods, in­ cluding the seizure and expropriation of other people’s property and goods without compen­ sation or justification. These and their like are the real objects and aims of International Communism in every country, with its head­ quarters and directive organisation in Moscow. Communism had a footing in many countries long before Sovietism came into existence. As such it always was, is. and always will be con- ι 122 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION demned by the Catholic Church as an erroneous system, entirely opposed to the natural and moral laws, and destructive of the natural rights and liberties of human beings. The state of things revealed by the Soviet Press in Russia in connection with the Com­ munistic “ experiment ” in that vast country" proves Communism to be specially calculated to reduce human life almost to the level of the brute creation. And this is the system some people would endeavour to set up in this country". Hence are we threatened with a Communistic campaign likely to grow in in­ tensity if not crushed at the root. We see some of its fruits in Spain, where the bad seed has been allowed to grow and blossom unchecked. Here, then, is work for the forces of Catholic Action—to expose, counteract, and, where necessary", fight this pernicious propaganda of International Communism wherever it may show its head here. In almost every country, Soviet propaganda aims at capturing workers, children, the unemployed : even the learned, educational, and cultured classes are embraced by" it. Its machinery* is manifold and compre­ hensive, framed to attract all classes and nationalities : and designed with diabolical in­ sidiousness to wean the youth from the Faith. ORGANISED CATHOLIC ACTION 123 In March, 1930, the Holy Father led the protest against the persecution of religion by the Soviets. His Holiness has also warned us against the educational attack on the children : “ Under the appearance of friendship, it attracts little children and attaches them to itself.” Finally, he has issued a trumpet-call to the Catholic world to inaugurate the work of Catholic Action to meet this Communism. It is time our forces were mobilised, marshalled and sent forth to attack, repulse and rout the forces of Satan. AUTHORITY AND ALLEGIANCE Source of Moral Power to Command Human Society in Authority or the moral power to command is an inherent element of human society. It runs through the entire framework of human activities. It is their mainstay. It is to be reckoned among the chief agencies which give stability and cohesion to the various depart­ ments of life in which it is found. In the family, in commerce and industry", in the professions, in the various forms of employment, in education, 124 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION in the army, in the Catholic Church and in civil government—in all these, it plays an im­ portant and efficient part. One of the most comprehensive and farreaching kinds of authority is that which belongs to those who are placed at the head of the State, and on whom devolves its government. This is known as civil authority, and its correlative is civil allegiance. Each of these two is the complement and counterpart of the other, and together they constitute the integral entity known as the Government of the State. Man’s nature postulates civil society, and where civil society is, there also must be authority. Without authority you must have anarchy, which is the disruption of ordered society. Civil society is kept together by authority, and the latter should be esteemed and respected by every right-minded man and woman. It is both natural and beneficial to man to live in society, to submit to authority, and to obey the laws enacted for the welfare and protection of society as a whole, and of each of its individual members. Whence, then, is civil authority? The source of civil authority and power is God. It is all-important to know this and to keep it in mind, so as to guard against certain erroneous ORGANISED CATHOLIC ACTION 125 views which are sometimes put forward on this subject, and which lead to very disastrous con­ sequences in many countries. Beyond any positive law or institution, nature requires civil authority to be set up and obeyed ; and, as God is the Author of Nature, what nature absolutely requires or absolutely forbids, God enjoins or forbids. Nature absolutely forbids anarchy, and requires civil authority ; so also, God forbids anarchy and enjoins civil authority and submission to it. In this sense, God is at the back of every State, binding men in con­ science to obey the behests of the State within the sphere of its competence. This duty of civil obedience is inculcated by St. Paul in the clearest language: “ Let every soul,” he says, “ be subject to the higher powers, for there is no power but from God ; and those that are, are ordained by God. . . . Wherefore be subject of necessity, not only for wrath, but also for conscience sake. . . for they are the ministers of God. (Romans, xiii, 1-6.) That the source of civil authority is God is contravened by erroneous theories and by some modern philosophers. Two of the latter stand out above the others, viz., the English political philosopher, Hobbes, in the middle 126 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION of the seventeenth century ; and the French rhetorician, J. J. Rousseau, at the end of the eighteenth century. Rousseau was an ardent disciple of Hobbes—he popularised Hobbes, and drew out of Hobbes’s principles conclu­ sions which Hobbes was afraid to formulate. Both Hobbes and Rousseau start by contradict­ ing Aristotle. According to Aristotle, man is “by nature a State-making animal” ; the State­ making effort is “ natural ’’ to man, and, St. Thomas adds, “ so is authority natural and, as such, of God.” There Hobbes and Rousseau are antagonistic to Aristotle and St. Thomas. Hobbes took “ natural ” as found in the original state of nature and as ” desperately wicked ” in the Calvinistic sense. On the other hand, Rousseau was enamoured of the “ noble savage ” and his natural goodness. Hobbes held that man had good reason for getting out of this state of nature and for living in society. This was done by a pact or con­ vention of every man with all the rest of man­ kind to live in society. This compact was called by Rousseau the “ Social Contract,” and the body thus formed was named by Hobbes the “ Leviathan.’’ The individual gave up his will when he made the ” Social Contract.” Hence, with Hobbes and Rousseau the State ORGANISED CATHOLIC ACTION 127 is omnipotent. The general will wields this tremendous power, and the individual will is non-existent. “ No rights against the State,’’ is the motto of Hobbes and Rousseau ; and that same motto seems to be the guiding star of many modern rulers and politicians, who are thus going back to pagan doctrine. God as the source of civil power and authority is simply ignored. Herein we have, perhaps, the worst feature of Socialism and Communism. Even parental authority is swept away by these systems. Of this iniquitous feature, Pope Leo XIII, in his famous Encyclical, Rerum Novarum (15th May, 1891), speaks thus : Parental authority can be neither abolished nor absorbed by the State, for it has the same source as human life itself. . . . The Socialists, therefore, in setting aside the parent and setting up a State supervision, act against natural justice and break into pieces the stability of all family life.’’ This tendency to ignore God in public life and government has led to a very ambiguous and misleading theory on the origin and source of civil power and authority known as the “ sovereignty of the people.’’ If God be the supreme source of public authority, it cannot 128 ORGANISED CATHOLIC ACTION A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION belong to any human agency. Rationalists and other freethinkers deify “ Humanity ” as their “supreme being,” and find it easy enough to attribute public power and authority to their own deity. Christians and Theists cannot accept such a doctrine, as it robs God of what belongs to Him. They give to God what is God’s; to Cæsar what is Cæsar’s, and to the people what is theirs—viz., a voice in the setting up and changing of rulers in accordance with the provisions of existing laws and con­ stitutions of States. A very serious flaw in the theory' of Hobbes and Rousseau is to be noticed. What they call the ‘‘ general ” or predominant will of the people is, as experience shows, liable to be influenced by cupidity and avarice, and is sometimes unmindful of the Seventh Command­ ment. Not the predominant will, but rather the predominant intelligence, guided by justice and right, should be the determining factor in statesmanship and government. This intel­ ligence is not necessarily inherent in majorities. The pagan poet Horace rightly says : “ Force devoid of counsel, of its own bulk, comes to a crash ” ; whilst the modern poet Milton speaks in praise of government “ broad-based on the people’s will.” 129 The people’s will can be easily led astray by false reasoning clothed in glowing language. Hobbes and Rousseau start from a false supposition, viz., that the natural state of man is savage solitude and not civil society. Rousseau’s theory of the “ Social Contract is devoid of any foundation and against the evidence of history’, which shows that society is not a thing of convention and compact. It leads to tyranny and anarchy’ ; it tramples on the rights and consciences of individuals, and in some cases enslaves entire nations, as we see in the present state of Russia. It contains the germs of many erroneous views and theories in modern times. The Holy See made a collection or syllabus of modern errors, which include a number of propositions on the subject of civil authority, and were condemned by Pope Pius IX in 1864. Three of these propositions ran as follows : I. (No. 39).—“ The State is the source and origin of all rights.” II. (No. 60).—“ Authority is nothing else than numbers and a sum of material forces.” III. (No. 63).—“ It is allowable to refuse obedience to lawful princes and even to rebel against them.” 5 130 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION ORGANISED CATHOLIC ACTION 131 eminent theologian Suarez sets forth the Leo XIII not only condemns Rousseau’s primary obligations of civil authority as errors, but vividly presents the true doctrine “the natural happiness of the perfect or selfon this subject. In his Encyclical Immortale sufficient human community, and the happiness Dei (November, 1885), he says : of individuals as they are members of such a “ Man’s natural instinct moves him to live in community that they may live therein peaceably civil society, for he cannot, if dwelling apart, and justly with a sufficiency of goods for the provide himself with the necessary require­ preservation and comfort of their bodily life, ments of life, nor procure the means of develop­ and with so much moral rectitude as is neces­ ing his faculties. Hence it is divinely ordained sary’ for this external peace and happiness. ’ that he should be born into the society and com­ Suarez here inculcates on rulers and law­ pany of men—as well domestic as civil. Only makers the duty of promoting the welfare of civil society can ensure perfect self-sufficiency the community as a whole, and thus indirectly of life. But since no society can hold together unless there be someone over all, impelling promoting the happiness of the individuals individuals, efficaciously and harmoniously, to composing it by securing to them that tran­ one common purpose, a ruling authority quillity, that free hand for helping themselves, becomes a necessity for every civil common­ and that peaceful enjoyment of their own just wealth of men ; and this authority, no less than earnings and possessions. society itself is natural and therefore has God The main point fixed by nature and by God for its Author. There is no power but from is that there must be authority in every State, God. ” and that the authority existent for the time Hence it follows that the phrases “ Sovereign being must be obeyed. Authority rules by People,’’ “ Sovereignty of the People,” the Divine right, under whatever form it is People s Will,” and the like, in the sense established. that the people of a State are the supreme To subvert or abolish public authority is source of public authority and power, involve a against nature and the well-being of society. usurpation of Divine Rights. Civil authority This does not mean that any particular kind of is a natural means to a natural end. The 132 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION public authority is inviolable and cannot be changed into another kind. The change may be a radical or fundamental one, as from a monarchical to a democratic form, or a change of persons at the helm of government. The latter change is usually made in accordance with the provisions of the constitution of each State. In the monarchical systems the changes are generally made on the hereditary principle, whilst in the democratic systems the elective method is the determining factor. The theory known as the “ Divine Right of Kings ” prevailed largely in pagan countries and is still found in some of them, such as Japan. It meant the maintaining of the country’s religion and gods as part of the country’s government—in other words, the monarch, king or emperor, was the head of both Church and State. The coming of Christianity changed all that. Christ established a Church entirely distinct from, and independent of, the civil State and its government. The “ Reformers ” returned to a large extent to the pagan system in recognising the temporal princes and rulers as heads of both Church and State. Their motto was “ cujus regio ejus religio ”—“ the ruler of a country ORGANISED CATHOLIC ACTION 133 is the head of its religion.” It began in Germany and was adopted in England under Henry VIII, Elizabeth and James I. Another sense of the “ Divine Right of Kings ” was that a State once monarchical must always remain such, and that all power resided in the monarch. James’s son, Charles I, lost his throne and his head through this twofold claim of the divine right, viz., to be the head of both Church and State. RULERS AND SUBJECTS Catholic Church Not Wedded to Any Particular Form of Government The Catholic Church is not, and never has been, wedded to any particular form of govern­ ment. She recognises either monarchies or republics in which authority is justly and wisely exercised. Pope Leo XIII, in his Encyclical Sapientiæ Christiana (January 10th, 1890), expounds the attitude of the Church as follows : “ The Church, the guardian always of her own right, and most observant of that of others, holds that it is not her province to decide which is the best amongst many diverse forms of 134 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION government and the civil institutions of Chris­ tian States; and amid the various kinds of State rule she does not disapprove of any, provided the respect due to religion and the observance of good morals be upheld. . . . Therefore, they who are engaged in framing constitutions and enacting laws should bear in mind the moral and religious nature of man and take care to help him, but in a right and orderly way, to gain perfection, neither enjoining nor for­ bidding anything save what is reasonably consistent with civil as well as religious re­ quirements. " On the subject of selecting rulers and law­ givers, Pope Leo says : “ Where the Church (does not forbid taking part in public affairs, it is ht and proper to give support to men of acknowledged worth who pledge themselves to deserve well of the Catholic cause; and on no account may it be allowed to prefer to them any such individuals as are hostile to religion." In the Encyclical A Catolici Muneris (December, 1878), Pope Leo says : “ As regards rulers and subjects, all, without exception, according to Catholic teach­ ing and precept, are mutually bound by duties and rights, in such manner that, on the one hand, moderation is enjoined on the ORGANISED CATHOLIC ACTION 135 appetite for power, and on the other, obedience is shown to be easily stable and wholly honour­ able. The Church teaches the obedience of subjects, and constantly urges upon each and all who are subject to her Apostolic precept the duties enjoined by St. Paul in his Canonical Epistles : There is no power but from God ; and those that are, are ordained by God. Therefore he that resisteth the power re­ sisted! the ordinance of God ; and they that resist purchase for themselves damnation.’ And again : ‘ Be subject of necessity, not only for wrath but also for conscience’ sake. And render to all men their dues ; tribute to whom tribute is due ; custom to whom custom ; fear to whom fear ; honour to whom honour.’ “ And St. Peter : ‘ Be ye subject, therefore, to every human creature for God’s sake, whether it be to the king as excelling, or to governors sent by Him for the punishment of evil doers. Honour all men, love the brother­ hood, fear God, honour the King.’ “ ‘ But to the end that the rulers of the people shall employ the power bestowed, for the advancement and not the detriment of those under their rule, the Church of Christ very 136 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION fittingly warns the rulers themselves that the Sovereign Judge will call them to a strict account : Give ear you that rule the people, for power is given you by the Lord, and strength by the Most High, Who will examine your works and stretch and search out your thoughts ... for a most severe judgment shall be for them that bear rule . . . for God will not accept any man’s person ; neither will He stand in awe of any man’s greatness, for He hath made the little and the great, and He hath equally care for all. But a greater punishment is ready for the more mighty ’ (Wisdom vi, 3, and foil.) Should it, however, happen at any time that in the public exercise of authority, rulers act rashly and arbitrarily, the teaching of the Catholic Church does not allow subjects to rise against them without further warranty, lest peace and order become more and more dis­ turbed, and society run the risk of greater detriment ; and when things have come to such a pass as to hold out no further hope, she teaches that a remedy is to be sought in the virtue of Christian patience, and in urgent prayer to God. But should it please legis­ lators and rulers to enjoin or sanction any­ thing repugnant to the divine or natural law, the dignity and duty of the name of Christian, ORGANISED CATHOLIC ACTION 137 and the Apostolic injunction proclaim that ‘one ought to obey God rather than men ’ (Acts, v, 29).” The foregoing is the teaching of a solemn Papal Encyclical addressed to the whole Church, and sets forth the Catholic doctrine on the subject of armed rebellion against con­ stituted public authority. It is also the unani­ mous teaching of Catholic theologians, headed by St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Alphonsus Liguori. Armed rebellion or civil war is a terrible evil. It is a well-known axiom of Catholic morals that it is unlawful to employ evil means to accomplish even a good end. We must of two evils choose the lesser. Civil war against constituted authority inside of a State is very different from a justifiable war between two independent nations. The former is war against the ruling authority of one’s own country by the subjects of that authority whilst the latter is for the just defence of one’s own country against an outside aggressor, and is the highest exercise of patriotism. The existing evils of tyranny and oppression in a State are aggravated by armed rebellion and revolution. But here someone will ask : Is there any means of ending oppression and injustice besides armed rebellion? Yes, cer- 138 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION ORGANISED CATHOLIC ACTION 139 ancestors. Subsequently, armed rebellion and tainly there are other means, and these are its ante-chamber, secret, oath-bound societies, mentioned in the Papal Encyclical and by condemned by the Church, not only failed, but St. Thomas Aquinas. These are : Christian cost some of the participants ven7 dearly. patience and prayers, both private and public, The subsequent agitation for Home Rule and that God Who gave the power which is being land reform was conducted mainly on the basis abused may bring the oppression to an end. of moral force, and effected some very sub­ St. Thomas adds that in order that this favour may be obtained from God, the people should stantial benefits for the Irish people. cease from sinning, for it is often in punishment In his Encyclical (November 1st, 1885),1 of sin that, by Divine permission, the wicked Leo XIII begins by calling the Church “ the obtain power. great promoter of civilisation ” : “ The Tyranny and unjust laws can also be met suc­ Catholic Church, that imperishable handwork cessfully by various peaceful means, such as of our all-merciful God, has for its immediate public agitation, exposure to the world, the in­ natural purpose the saving of souls and securing fluence of friendly States, public appeals, our happiness in heaven. Yet, in regard to petitions, and most of all by the Vote in things temporal, she is the source of benefits countries where the elective or franchise system as manifold and great as if the chief end of her puts down and sets up rulers and law-makers. existence were to ensure the prospering of our These and other similar means are lawful and earthly life. And, in truth, wherever the belong to the domain known as moral and Church has set her foot, she has straightway constitutional methods. They often succeed changed the face of things, and has attempered where violent methods would only increase the the moral tone of the people with a new tyranny and oppression of a people or certain civilisation and with virtues before unknown. classes of that people. All nations which have yielded to her sway have These were the methods followed by the great become eminent for their culture, their sense popular leader, Daniel O’Connell, a hundred of justice, and the glory of their high deeds.” years ago, and they met with a large measure of success in righting the wrongs of our I Christian Constitution of States. 140 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION Duty of Rulers and Subjects In the same Encyclical the Pope says : “ The right to rule is not necessarily bound up with any special make of government. It may take this or that form, provided only that it be of a nature to ensure the general welfare. But what­ ever be the nature of the government, rulers must ever bear in mind that God is the para­ mount ruler of the world, and must set Him before themselves as their exemplar and law in the administration of the State. For in things visible God has fashioned secondary causes in which His divine action can in some way be discerned, leading up to the end to which the course of the world is ever tending. In like manner, in civil society God has always willed that there should be a ruling authority, and that they who are invested with it should reflect the Divine Power and Providence, in some measure, over the human race. They, therefore, who rule should rule with even-handed justice, not as masters but rather as fathers, for the rule of God over man is most just, and is always tempered with a father’s kindness. Government should, moreover, be administered for the well-being of the citizens, because they who govern others possess ORGANISED CATHOLIC ACTION 141 authority solely for the welfare of the State. Furthermore, the civil power must not be sub­ servient to the advantage of any one individual, or of some few persons, inasmuch as it was established for the common good of all. But if those who are in authority rule unjustly, if they govern overbearingly or arrogantly, and if their measures prove hurtful to the people, they must remember that the Almighty will one day bring them to account—the more strictly in proportion to the sacredness of their office and the pre-eminence of their dignity. The mighty shall be mightily tormented. Then truly will the majesty of the law meet with the dutiful and willing homage of the people, when they are convinced that their rulers hold authority from God and feel that it is a matter of justice and duty to obey them ; and to show them reverence and fealty united to a love not unlike that which children show their parents. ‘ Let every soul be subject to the higher power ’ (Rom. xiii, 1). To despise legitimate authority in whomsoever vested is unlawful and a rebellion against the Divine Will, and whosoever resisteth that rushes will­ fully to destruction. ‘ He that resisteth the power resisteth the ordinance of God, and they that resist purchase to themselves damnation 142 A MANUAL OF CATHOLIC ACTION (Rom. xiii). To cast aside obedience, and by popular violence to incite to revolt is there­ fore treason, not against man only, but against God.” THE CATHOLIC PRESS American Cardinal’s Appeal to People the In 1931, Catholic Press Sunday was observed throughout the Archdiocese of Boston, in accordance with a proclamation of Cardinal O’Connell. The attention of the people at all the Masses was called to the importance of the Catholic Press and their duty to support it. In his official letter calling for the observance, Cardinal O’Connell said : ‘‘ The influence exerted by the printed word upon the minds and hearts of men is tremen­ dous. The Church, ever mindful of her Divine Mission to teach all nations, has adapted this mighty weapon to her holy purpose by develop­ ing what is known as the Catholic Press. This consists of books, periodicals and newspapers published under Catholic auspices and dedi­ cated to the dissemination of Catholic truth. ORGANISED CATHOLIC ACTION 143 Current Errors “ For a proper understanding of their Faith and a true appreciation of its blessings, it is necessary that Catholics should read Catholic literature. For there they will find in most accessible form the refutation of current errors, the solution of pressing problems, and the anti­ dote to the false philosophy of the day. “ It is a duty, therefore, incumbent upon all Catholics to read and support the Catholic Press.”