LITURGICAL LAW A HANDBOOK OF THE ROMAN LITURGY By x . The Rev. P. CHARLES AUGUSTINE,. O.S.B., D.D. B. HERDER BOOK CO. 15 & 17 SOUTH BROADWAY, ST. LOUIS, MO., AND 33 QUEEN SQUARE, LONDON, W. C. 1931 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Printed in U. S. A. Cum Permusu Superiorum NIHIL OBSTAT Sfi. Ludoviei, die 16. Sept., 1931, Joannes Rothensteiner Censor Ubrorum IMPRIMATUR Sti. Ludoidci, die 17. Sept., 1931, Ψ Joannes J. Glennon, Archiepiscopus Copyright 1931 BY B. HERDER BOOK CO. Vaü-Ballow Prese, Inc·» Binghamton and Rew York Emo ac Riïio Dno DNO IUSTINIANO GEORGÏO SERÉDT, O.S.B., S.R.E. Tit. SS. Andreae et Gregorii ad Clivum Scauri Presbytero Cardinali, Hungariac Principi Primati, Archiepiscopo Strigoniensi, Dilecto olim in iurc canonico discipulo, semper confratri, Fraternae caritatis pignus offert AUCTOR PREFACE The last two decades have witnessed a revival of the liturgical sense which may be truly called a “liturgical movement,” although this term may not be “rhe most desirable" one.1 The beginnings of the revival go back to Abbots Gucranger and Wolter, in France and Germany, in the middle of the last century. But the saintly Pope Pius X can justly claim the lion’s share in the present reawakening of interest in the liturgy and the popularization of the same. Il spread from the continent to the monasteries of Great Britain, and thence to our country. A drawback to the full understanding of liturgy will ever be the linguistic difficulty. When the leitourgia was celebrated in the language of the people, either Greek or Latin, it was relatively easy for the faithful to follow the leitourgos and the ceremonies he performed. For the lex orandi and lex credendi were embodied in rhe same language. After the migration of nations, however, the unity of language was rent asunder, although the (vulgar) Latin continued to be the court and school idiom of the Western hemisphere. To render the divine service with its mysterious rites and language intel­ ligible to the people, handbooks or explanations were composed, chiefly in monastic and cathedral centers from the beginning of the Middle Ages. Thus furnished with the necessary liturgical lore, the laity could and did assist at the Divine Office, at Mass, and at other functions. These liturgical expositions, it is true, may not always be found to be historically accurate, according to our critical taste, yet some of them savor of solid liturgical sense and piety. This is especially true of the Scholastic era. A setback in liturgical intelligence and devotion is noticeable since the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, due to the almost universal decadence of religion which preceded the Western Schism and Ref­ ormation. This latter called for the defense of Catholic worship 1 See Orate Fralrer, 1926, pp. 51, 28 f.: Thalhofer, Lifurgik, 1883. J. P- 57 ff· V vi PREFACE against the insipid attacks on this paramount issue of religious life. Therefore the old Sacramentarics and other liturgical books were critically searched and the service was expounded to the people. Il was helped by the discoveries of the archaeologists, who began their work about the same time (Bosio, -}- 1629). The works on liturgy published in the seventeenth century by the Benedictine Congrega­ tion of St. Maur, and other writers, especially Tommasi, ought to have had a salutary influence on the growing indifference toward Christian worship. However, the atmosphere of Jansenism, Gallicanism, and Joscphinism was unfavorable. Neither was the Rationalistic tendency prevailing in some German theological schools a fertile soil for liturgical life. It was only, as stated, in the middle of the last century that a really Catholic conception of the liturgy gave a new impulse to the innate power of that “primary and indispensable source of the true Christian spirit” (Abbot Marmion). So much as to the historico-practical aspect of the liturgy. There is another side to the problem. The liturgy, as a whole, is a marvelously designed piece of art of the Divine Master. But art, too, has its development. What is divine in liturgy is simple and short (think of the Canon of the Mass), though of profound significance. What is human therein is extended, sometimes of an obvious and practical meaning, sometimes obscure and of little import. We can not entirely accept the oft repeated saying: “Nothing is small in the service of God.” We might just as well say: "Everything is great in the Code of Canon Law, and hence not one tittle may be violated by the hierarchy or laity.” Such an inference would not be sustained even by the legislator. As well abolish the distinction between mortal and venial sin. Hence rules must be duly weighed. Here we touch upon the rubrical part of the liturgy. The movement spoken of above is certainly welcome to any trained Catholic. Enthusiasm, however, is chilled when we have to wade through thousands upon thousands of rubrics and rubrical decisions. The Code contains 2414 canons. The Dccrcta Authentica in its six volumes contains 4284 numbers. If we multiply this number by five we have 21,420 dubia solved. And the multiplication is not too highly set. For more than one of the decisions solves twenty, thirty, or even fifty dubia, each of them really constituting a decision or rule for itself. Then take all the changes PREFACE vit made since 1913 in the Breviary and the Missal.2 Is it too much to say that a rubrical disarmament parley might produce some useful sim­ plification? We justly complain of too many civil laws. It is our honest conviction that there is reason for complaint about the present condi­ tion of rubrics. If we may he permitted a few suggestions, the reckon­ ing of the liturgical day might just as well be begun like the canonical day; this would curtail the concurrence table. Then the Votive Masses might be more briefly and more clearly determined. The clas­ sification of feasts might be simplified, as well as the ever increasing octaves. Besides, close liturgical observers are surprised at some of the new lessons and orations which wax in length but lose in strength and ecclesiastical style and lone. The new Prefaces, too, seem to lack the terseness of the old ones; their musical rhythm and ring arc, as it were, out of tune with their ancient models. Compare, for instance, the sim­ ple Lenten Preface with that of Christ the King. Lastly, the many changes which have followed one another rapidly within the last twenty years—some of them rather unexpected—bewilder the clergy accustomed to die former rubrics. Add to that the variationes in the Plain Chant, and it will be realized that these observations and voices—often uttered in very acute accents—are not fanciful or groundless. These suggestions, which have time and again occurred to the teacher and writer of liturgy, are here offered, not with the intention of impeding the “liturgical movement,” but of furthering it—pro­ vided this “movement” docs not turn into formalism. The liturgy, if carried out “in spirit and in truth,” can only promote the Kingdom of God on earth. The beautiful is the splendor of the true. It remains to say something about the arrangement and contents of this book. There are five titles, which comprise, according to the author’s idea, the whole field of the sacred liturgy. This division may appear novel ; but we hope that the critical reader will judge kindly the attempt to circumscribe a large subject. In many liturgical treatises the ceremonies arc described per longum ct latum. Such books arc useful, indeed, but apt to prove irksome to the teacher and pupil. For to mem­ orize ceremonies is purely mechanical and next to impossible without 2Cfr. F. Brehm, Die Neuerungen im Missale, 1920; he devotes 437 pages to “additiones et variationes." viii PREFACE constant practice. Besides pastoral theology often overlaps the domain of liturgiology, and it is hardly possible to draw a sharp line of demar­ cation between the two. We have endeavored to leave the administra­ tion of the Sacraments, except Holy Eucharist, and of the Sacramcntals, to pastoral theology. The Eucharist is so closely connected with divine worship, which is the object of the liturgy, that its adminis­ tration is worship, or at least ought to be. This is not the case in the administration of the other Sacraments. The reason why the ceremonies of Pontifical Mass are not treated here is that to set forth those ceremonies would require another vol­ ume and frustrate the aim of a “Handbook.” Students are referred to the excellent Manual of Episcopal Ceremonies compiled by the late Archabbot Aurelius Stchlc, O.S.B. (St. Vincent, Pa., 1914). Latin books on the same subject arc not wanting, as the list at the end of this volume shows. We have purposely abstained from entering upon mystic and al­ legorical interpretations. For these, though they arc valuable and useful for pious meditation, are scarcely looked for in a hook setting forth the Liturgical Law. Historical notes, on the other hand, have been as freely given as may be expected from a "Handbook.” If we ask pardon for not offering a more elaborate critical apparatus, it is because this has become most formidable, as may be seen in the Jahrbuch für Liturgie-Wissenschaft. It may be reasonably doubted whether such scientific researches arc, in every case, conducive to a real understanding of the liturgy. We conclude these remarks with the request to our readers to re­ frain from sending us questions concerning the sacred liturgy: the S. Congregation of Rites is established for this purpose. The author wishes to express his gratitude to all his kind confreres who have in any way contributed to the completion of this book, espe­ cially to the Rev. Fr. Hilary Grantz, O.S.B., of St. Benedict’s Abbey, Mt. Angel, Oregon, for reading and typing the manuscript, and to His Eminence Cardinal Scrcdi, Prince-Primate of Hungary, who not only condescended to accept, but graciously composed, the dedication, which we here reproduce as a token of his great kindness and humility. Feast of St. Gregory the Great, 1931. The Author CONTENTS PAGE General Norms of Sacred Liturgy................................................. i 1. Definition and Character of the Liturgy...................................... x 2. The Subject of the Sacred Liturgy........................................... 4 3. Object and Division of the Sacred Liturgy................................. y 4. Authentic Sources of the Sacred Liturgy...................................... 9 5. Literary Sources.......................................................................... 14 TITLE I Sacred Things and Seasons ΟΠΛΡΤΚΒ I. Churches, Altars, and Utensils...................................... § i. Churches and Oratories................................................ Oratories..................................................................... § 2. /Xltars........................................................................... The Tabernacle........................................................... § 3. The Tabernacle Light................................................ § 4. Tlie Sacra Supellex..................................................... Chalice and Paten..................................................... The Ciborium................................................................ Tlie Ostensorium ...................................................... Corporals, Palls, Purificators, Veils, and Burses . § 5. Liturgical Dress........................................................... Liturgical Hand and Footgear..................................... § 6. Liturgical Insignia..................................................... § 7. Liturgical Colors of Vestments..................................... § 8. Other Liturgical and Church Furniture..................... § 9. Church Music................................................................ § 10. Various Tones and Voices........................................... II. Holy Seasons..................................................................... Fast Days................................................................................ III. Liturgical Actions................................................................. § i. Bodily Attitude........................................................... § 2. Reverences..................................................................... § 3. Inclinations................................................................ § 4. Gestures of the Head..................................................... § 5. Gestures of the Hands................................................ ix 21 21 24 29 40 42 43 44 46 47 48 49 55 57 62 63 68 70 75 79 81 81 83 86 87 90 CONTENTS X CHAPTEK § 6. § 7. § 8. § 9. § 10. PAOE The Sign of the Cross.................................................... 91 The LiturgicalKiss........................................................... 92 Incensation ..................................................................... 94 Conduct of the Members of the Clerical Choir ... 96 General Rulesforthe .Acolytes............................................ 97 TITLE II The Divine Office Historical Development....................................................... 103 Structure of the Breviary..................................................108 § i. The Calendar of the Liturgical Year............................. 108 § 2. Distinction and Rank of Offices........................................ 112 Λ. Table of Occurrence.................................................. 115 Accidental Occurrence and Transfer of Feasts . .117 Perpetual Occurrence and Transfer of Feasts . . .118 B. Table of Concurrence............................................. 119 § 3. Commemorations and Octaves........................................ 120 § 4. Votive and Additional Offices........................................ 124 § 5. Feasts of Dedication and of the Title of the Church and of the patrons............................................. 124 § 6. Vigils............................................................................. 128 § 7. S. Maria in Sabbato........................................................ 128 HL Composition of the Divine Office........................................ 129 § i. Matins............................................................................. 129 § 2. Lauds............................................................................. 130 § 3. The Four Little Hours...................................................131 § 4. Vespers............................................................................. 132 § 5. Compline . . . . . . . 133 § 6. The Material Composition ofthe Divine Office . . . 133 § 7. Psalms and Canticles........................................................ 134 § 8. Lessons ............................... 136 § 9. Orations, Prayers and Suffragium...................................138 § 10. Hymns............................................................................. 140 § ii. Antiphons and Responsories........................................ 143 § 12. Chapters and Versicles...................................................145 § 13. The Symbol and Te Dcum............................................. 146 § 14. The Anthems of the BlessedVirgin............................... 146 IV. Mode of Reciting the Divine Office...................................148 § I. Public Recitation............................................................. 15° 1. Matins........................................................................ 151 2. Lauds........................................................................ 154 3. Prime........................................................................ *55 I. II. CONTENTS CHAPTER xi PAGE 4. Tierce, Sext, and None........................................ 156 5. Vespers and Compline........................................ 157 6. Solemn Vespers................................................... 159 A. Preliminaries................................................... 159 B. The Function ...................................................160 7. Vespers Before the Blessed Sacrament . . . . .165 8. Solemn Compline............................................. 166 9. Office of the Last Three Days of HolyWeek . . . 167 to. Office of the Dead . .... 169 ii. The Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary .172 §2. Private Recitation of the Breviary................................... 173 §3. Who Are Obliged to Say the Office..................... 173 TITLE III The Holy Eucharist Sacrifice of the Mass........................................ 179 I. The Holy Article I. Historical Explanations........................................................ 179 Article IL The Celebrating Priest........................................................ 184 Concélébration.................................................................. 185 Obligation of Saying Mass...................................................185 Binating............................................................................. 185 Preparation for Mass........................................................ 187 Intention and Application of theMass............................... 188 Article III. Time and Place of CelebratingMass.................................... 189 Days and Hours............................................................. 189 Article IV. Rites and Ceremonies of the Mass........................................ 191 Vestments and Language...................................................192 Article V. The Order of the Mass........................................................ 194 Mass of the Catechumens...................................................194 Mass of the Faithful........................................................ 194 § i. Mass of the Catechumens............................................. 195 Kyrie Eleison and Gloria............................................. 197 Collects or Orations.................................................. 198 From the Epistle to the Gospel.................................. 200 The Credo.................................................................. 201 CONTENTS xii ΟΜΑΡΤΚΚ PAGK § 2. Mass of the Faithful................................................ 202 The Offertory........................................................... 202 Preface and Sanctus................................................ 205 The Canon................................................................ 2O7 From the Beginning of the Canon to the Elevation . 207 From the Elevation to the Pater Noster . . . . 2>3 Communion.......................................................... 216 Postcommunion and Dismissal................................ 218 Article VI. 220 The Rubrics of the Mass........................................... 220 (Ritus Servandus in Celebratione Missae) .... 220 The Asperges.......................................................... 221 § i. Ordinary of the Mass........................................... 225 Kyrie Eleison—Gloria—Prayers........................... 226 Epistles to the Offertory . ........................... From the Offertory to the Canon........................... 228 From the Canon to the Consecration..................... *3« From the Elevation to the Pater Noster .... 234 From the Pater Noster to the Communion . . . 236 Postcommunion and Dismissal........................... 240 240 § 2. High Mass........................................................... Kyrie Eleison—Gloria—Prayers........................... 241 From the Epistle to the Offertory........................... 245 From the Offertory to the Canon ..................... 247 From the Beginning of the Canon to the Consecration 256 From the Elevation to the Pater Noster ... 258 From the Pater Noster to Communion 259 Postcommunion and Dismissal of the Faithful . 261 § 3. Prayers After Mass................................................ 262 Article VII. Rites of Various Masses........................................................264 § i. Missa Cantata........................................................ 264 § 2. Mass Before the BlessedSacrament Exposed . . . 268 § 3. Pontifical Mass........................................................ 271 § 4. Conventual Mass........................................................ 274 § 5. Votive Mass............................................................. 276 §6. Mass for the Dead(Requiem).................................... 284 Section I. Rubrics for Low Mass............................. 286 Section II. Rubrics for Requiem High Mass . . 287 Section III. Rubrics of the New (Black) Missal . 289 I. Funeral Masses............................................. 290 II. Privileged Requiems .... 291 III. Ordinary Requiem Masses........................ 293 CONTENTS CHAPTER xiii ΓΛΟΒ IV. Mass Formularies........................................ 294 V. Prayers........................................................ 295 § 7. Mass in Another Church........................................ 296 Article VIII. The Changeable Parts of the Mass.................................. 298 Orations—Commemorations............................................. 302 Article IX. Defects and Mistakes in the Celebration of Mass . . 307 § 1. General Rules................................ ... 307 §2. Defects Concerning the Matter of the Holy Sacrifice 308 § 3. Defects of Form . ..................................... 310 § 4. Defects During the Celebration of the Mass . . . 310 T he Holy Eucharist as Communion.................................. 312 II. § i. The Minister of Holy Communion.................................. 313 § 2. The Recipient of Holy Communion............................. 314 § 3. Time and Place for Distributing Holy Communion . . 316 §4. The Manner of Distributing Holy Communion . . 317 I. Holy Communion Distributed During Mass .317 II. Distribution of Holy Communion Outside of Mass 319 TH. Communion of the Sick........................................ 32X III. Cult of the Blessed Sacrament........................................326 § i. Sacramental Exposition and Benediction........................ 328 I. Ordinary Exposition.................................................. 329 II. Solemn Benediction.................................................. 333 § 2. Forty Hours’ Adoration.................................................. 334 I. Masses....................................................................... 335 II. Ceremonies (Processions)....................................... 339 § 3. Theophoric Processions.................................................. 340 I. Corpus Christi Procession........................................ 340 II. Procession During theForty Hours’ Adoration . . 343 IV. Holy Week Service............................................................. 345 § i. Historical Notes ............................................................. 345 § 2. Ceremonies of Holy Week............................................. 350 I. Palm Sunday............................................................. 350 According to the Memoriale Rituum........................ 351 Solemn Functions.................................................. 352 The Passion............................................................. 355 II. Maundy Thursday.................................................. 357 III. Good Friday............................................................. 360 Service According to the “Memoriale” .... 360 Veneration of the Cross........................................361 Procession............................................................. 363 Mass of the Presanctified........................................ 364 xtv CONTENTS CHAPTER Solemn Service..................................................... IV. Holy Saturday................................ ..... . . . 1. Services According to the “Memoriale” . Up to the Blessing of the Paschal Candle . Blessing of the Paschal Candle ..... Tlie Prophecies........................................... Blessing of the Baptismal Font..................... Litany, Mass, and Vespers........................... 2. Solemn Service................................................ Blessing of the Fire . ........................... From the “Exultet” to the Prophecies and the Blessing of the Baptismal Font..................... Blessing of the Baptismal Font........................... Mass and Vespers........................................... PAG 8 366 37O 370 37O 372 373 373 375 376 377 378 379 380 TITLE IV Religious Worship I. Veneration of Saints, Images,and Relics...............................385 § i. Veneration of Saints........................................................385 § 2. Images and Relies............................................................. 387 II. Processions (Litanies)........................................................389 § I. Historical Notes............................................................. 389 § 2. Order of Procession....................................................... 391 § 3. Rites of Various Processions............................................. 392 I. Candlemas Day, Feb. 2.............................................. 392 II. The Procession on April 25 and on the Rogation Days · - · . ..................................................... 393 III. The Other Processions............................................. 394 III. Vows and Oaths.................................................................. 39^ § i. Vows............................................................................. 396 § 2. Oaths............................................................................. 398 TITLE V Ritual Worship I. Initiatory Rites.................................................................. 401 § i. Baptism............................................................................. 401 § 2. Confirmation.................................................................. 406 § 3. First Communion............................................................. 408 § 4. Ordination....................................................................... 408 §5. Matrimony....................................................................... 418 § 6. Second Initiation or Reconciliation........................... 422 CONTENTS CHARTE» xv PAGE § 7. Final Initiation.................................................................. 425 I. Extreme Onction........................................................ 425 II. The Funeral Service.................................................. 426 II. Dedicatory Rites.................................................................. 430 § i. Consecration of Churches............................................. 430 § 2. Consecration of Altars........................................................ 438 §3. Blessing of Cemeteries..................................................... 441 § 4. Blessing of Bells............................................................. 444 § 5. Blessing of Holy Oils........................................................ 445 § 6. Blessing of Candles and Ashes........................................ 445 § 7. Blessing of Vestments........................................................ 447 § 8. Blessing of Water............................................................. 448 Bibliography....................................................................... 453 Alphabetical Index............................................................. 458 List of Canons Quoted........................................................ 466 GENERAL NORMS OF SACRED LITURGY I. DEFINITION AND CHARACTER OF THE LITURGY Liturgy may be defined as the public worship canonized by the Church. Tiic Greek word λειτουργία signifies a public charge or function.1 The Old Testament describes the service of the priests and levites as λατουργία.- It is the melius ministerium which Christ, the High Priest of the New Dispensation, has obtained.3 This min­ istry comprises, first and above all, the sacrifice of our Lord Himself, who by His own blood entered into the holies, having obtained eternal redemption? Therefore, the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass is the liturgy par excellence. The Greek Church uses liturgia almost exclusively for the Eucharistic service.5 The Western Church at­ taches a wider significance to the term, applying it also to the Sacra­ ments and the Sacramentals, as far as they arc approved by the Church. This appears to be a very appropriate interpretation. For the Holy Eucharist being the focus of all divine worship, the cultus e divinus par excellence, Sr. Thomas truly says: The Sacraments of the Church are ordained for two purposes: to perfect man in the things that pertain to the worship of God according to the religion of the Christian life, and for a remedy against the defects of sin.7 Therefore—the Holy Doctor continues—all the other Sacraments are directed towards the Holy Eucharist. Baptism, Penance, Confirma­ tion, and Extreme Unction prepare man to receive the Holy Eucha­ rist. Holy Orders is directly intended for consecration. Matrimony ’ Thalhofcr, Handbuch der Kath. Uiurgi{. 1883, I. 1 f. The German language uses “Liturgik" for the science of liturgy (liturgiology). 2 Ex. 28, 39; 29, 30; Dcut. 17, 12; Numb. 4, 3; 1 Chr. 23, 28 etc. s Heb. 8, 6. 4 Heb. 9, 12. 9 Fortescue in the Caih. Encyclopedia, IX, 306, s. v. "Liturgy." Ctdinf from the Latin colere, to till, to cultivate, then to dwell, practice, study, and, finally, to honor, is the technical term for divine worship. 7 Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 65, art. 1. i * 2 GENERAL NORMS signifies the union of Christ and the Church, which union is typified in the Holy Eucharist? The Church, we say, has canonized public worship. For only the Church, as the mystic body of Christ, who dwells therein as in His house,9 can perpetuate lawful worship. This Church is one, holy, Catholic, and Apostolic. She, therefore, as the Church of the living God, the pillar and ground of truth,10 also claims the right to order the sacred liturgy and to approve the liturgical books.11 From this it follows that the term canonize is legitimately chosen. For the formal cause of the liturgy is the sanction of the Church. There is also an­ other reason for selecting this expression, to canonize. Theologians teach that the Church is infallible in issuing disciplinary laws, to which category the liturgical laws belong. This assertion calls for a brief explanation. We suppose, of course, that the laws in question are authentic, viz., proceed from the Supreme Head of the Church or a general council. Furthermore, a distinction is required between universal and particular liturgical laws. The former, like all laws in general, oblige the entire Church, not only a particular branch, province, diocese, chapter or religious Order. Particular liturgical laws do not fall under die object of ecclesiastical infallibility. Such arc many decisions to be found in the Collectio Authentica S. Rit. C. Besides, there is a twofold aspect to any disciplinary law, a purely disciplinary disposition and a doctrinal element. This latter is con­ nected with the infallible teaching of the Church and implies that liturgical laws emanating from the supreme authority contain noth­ ing against faith or morals. On the other hand, the merely disci­ plinary aspect does not imply infallibility to such an extent that these laws must be regarded as the most opportune and die wisest possible and valid for all time.12 Hence, also, universal liturgical laws arc nor unchangeable.13 This is in the nature of human law, and most of the liturgical laws arc human, i. e., ecclesiastical. « Ibid., art. 3. » Hct>. 3, 6. 10 i Tim. 3, 15· 11 Can. 1257· . . , ’-Sec Pcsch, S.J., Praelectiones Dogmaticae, 1924, T, p. 385 t.; Dicckmann, S.J., Theologia Fundamentali/, 1925, II, pp. 163 if. 13 The agape, for instance, was part of the Eucharist service, but was changed later on, and the rite of low Mass was also introduced later. DEFINITION AND CHARACTER OF THE LITURGY 3 The Church on more than one occasion proscribed the tenets of innovators. Thus the Tridentine Council,14 and Pius VI in his Constitution “Auctorem fidci.” 15 The Code, too, stresses the ob­ servance of the ceremonies prescribed by the Church.16 Why a public worship? The answer is given by St. Thomas: “The ceremonial precepts arc those which refer to the worship of God. Now divine worship is twofold: internal and external. For since man is composed of soul and body, each of these should be applied to the worship of God; the soul by an interior worship, the body by an outward worship: hence it is written (Ps. 83, 3): ‘My heart and my flesh have rejoiced in the living God.’ And as the body is or­ dained to God through the soul, so the outward worship is ordained to the inward worship.” 17 However, the word “public” refers to the social character of man, the body politic, which, as such, is created by God. As the Creator of society, He has a legitimate claim on the liturgical worship ordained cither by Himself or by His lawful rep­ resentatives. Here the question naturally arises concerning the obligatory force of liturgical laws, in particular of the rubrics' * A distinction lies be­ tween essential and accidental rubrics. Essential are those which constitute the sacred act itself and its validity, for instance, laying on of hands in Confirmation and Ordination. Accidental arc those which determine the worthy and appropriate performance of liturgi­ cal acts, as, for instance, ceremonies that explain, precede or fol­ low the act by way of adornment and instruction. Another divi­ sion is that into preceptive and directive rubrics, which has vexed moralists and liturgists ever since the end of the XVIth century. Preceptive are those which oblige in conscience; they refer more particularly to the celebration of the Mass, from the beginning (“Introibo”) to the last Gospel. Directive arc those which arc of the nature of a counsel or mere instruction, like the rubrics before H Scss. 7, c. 13; Sess. 22, n. 7. (Denzingcr-Bannwart, Enchiridion, nn. 856, 954)· 15 Prop. 78 (ib„ n. 1578). 10 See Can. 731; 733. 17 Summa Thcol., ta zae, qu. 101, art. 2. 18 Rubric is a term derived from the red color (color ruber, minium} in which the titles of the law books were written, and thus signifies a rule or norm, or the con­ tents of a topic. The name occurs in the liturgical books since the XIVth century; Thalhofcr, op. cit., p. 378; Callcwacrt, Lit. Institutiones, pp. 106 if. 4 GENERAL NORMS and after Mass. This distinction is rejected by some.19 However, we believe with Noldin 20 that this distinction should be retained. For as there arc even in the Code different laws, viz., invalidating, penal, and less perfect laws which involve different degrees of obligation, it appears but reasonable to admit a distinction in the rubrics. Whether the legislator intended a rubric to be preceptive or directive depends on the wording; ‘‘abstineat’' "caveat,” "debet” for instance, arc considered preceptive, while "poterit” and "cura­ bit” arc directive. Then the matter itself should be considered, whether it forms an essential or an accidental part of a liturgical act. Lastly, the authorities, viz., either the S. Congregation of Rites or the consensus of liturgists, must determine the weight of a rubric.21 To custom the same rules must be applied as to laws in general. In other words, since most of the rubrics are purely human laws, custom must be admitted under the same conditions as required for laws.22 If the contrary custom is reprobated, this renders its intro­ duction more difficult and less excusable, al least at the beginning; but since even the term “reprobated” is of merely human law, it cannot prevent the introduction of a contrary custom. It is said that any custom against the Constitution of Pius λ7 printed in the Missal, Breviary, and Ritual is an abuse.23 However, canonists commonly hold what was said concerning the reprobating clause, the S. Rit. C. not being exempt from that rule. 2. THE SUBJECT OF THE SACRED LITURGY The Code offers the key to the query, what is the subject of liturgy? Canon 1256 reads: “Worship exhibited to God, the Saints, and the Blessed, in the name of the Church, by ministers lawfully appointed for the purpose, and through acts established by the Church, is10 10 Thus Thalhofcr, I. c„ p. 380. 20 De Sacramentis, cd. by A. Schmitt, S.J., 1925» «"· 3b 2x0; Wappelhoret, cd. 1925. P· 3· 21 Vcncroni. I. c., p. 57 f. 22S.R.C., July 7, 1612 (n. 298): Dec. 7, 1844 (n. 2873); see our Commentary or. the New Code of Canon Law, I, p. 106 ίί. 25 Vcncroni, I. c., p. 61. SUBJECT OF THE SACRED LITURGY 5 called public.” Here we have die very essence of the Icitourgos: he must be lawfully appointed and act in the name of the Church. Christ, the God-Man, is the High Priest par excellence, the minis­ ter of the holies and of the true tabernacle, appointed to offer gifts and sacrifices.24 He continues His sacrificial office in the Church through His visible ministers and representatives. The Church con­ tains two classes of members, the sanctifying and those to be sancti­ fied. The act by which a lay member of the fold is received into the sanctifying Church is the ordo or ordination, by which he is initi­ ated into the clerical state or the hierarchy proper of the Church. Ordination comprises, besides episcopal consecration, the higher and lower Orders and even the first tonsure,25 although this latter is no Order at all, hut only a Sacramental and sign of incardination in a specified diocese.2'’· There is, of course, a gradation of the hierarchi­ cal order, according to the greater or lesser degree of power in the hieratic sphere. First and above all there arc the Orders called sacred, viz., the episcopate, the prcsbytcratc, and the diaconate, which out­ rank the others and belong to the hierarchy by divine institution.27 Subdeaconship, although a higher Order, is not an Order in the strict sense, much less can this be said of the four so-called minor Orders. All these five Orders arc branches of the diaconate, or sacred Orders in general, and cannot claim divine institution, though they are very ancient. Those who belong to the hierarchy, therefore, more especially the bishops, priests, and deacons,28 are the ministers law­ fully appointed; to them is committed the hieratic power; they form the "ecclesia sanctificans." But what of the people {populus) of whom St. Peter speaks as “a chosen generation, a kingly priesthood, a holy nation, a purchased people”? 20 They must by their active attendance at the mystic sac­ rifice prove their adherence to, and fellowship with, the High Priest and His representatives; they should, as St. Ignatius of Antioch points out, “come all together as to the temple of God, as to one altar, 2« Hcb. 8. 1-3. 23 Can. 950. 2rt Can. in, § 2. 2T Cone. Trid.t Sess. 23. can. 6 (Denzinger, n. 966). 28 The deacon is the extraordinary minister of Baptism and Communion (Can. 741; Can. 845» § 2). 29 i Pct. 2, 9. 6 GENERAL NORMS to one Jesus Christ.”30 This is the meaning of St. Peter’s words, as he himself explains in the same epistle: “Be you also as living stones built up, a spiritual house, a holy priesthood, to offer up spiritual sacrifices, acceptable to God by Jesus Christ.”31 Thus, in truth and reality, docs the lawfully appointed minister, “ordained for men in the things that appertain to God, offer up gifts and sacrifices for sin,” 32 in the name of the Church, the whole mystic body of Christ, nomine ecclesiae. For as a representative of both Head and members, the legitimate minister comprises in himself the hierarchic as well as the lay members and acts as public officer of the Church—“gerit personam totius ecclesiae.” This, of course, is especially true of bishops and priests; but the other ministers also act in the name of the Church, because they too arc ordained by the Church as coworkers in the sacred mysteries. This power of acting in the name of the Church is taken away from die ministers, or at least temporarily suspended, by excommunication, which involves exclusion from the communion of the faithful.33 Besides, the Code explicitly forbids excommunicated clerics to perform or administer the Sacraments, or to exercise ecclesiastical functions or charges.3’ Nor is there any distinction in this regard between vitandi and to­ lerati, as to the effect of excommunication. We hold, therefore, that the opinion proposed by some35 that only the vitandi cease to act in the name of the Church cannot be solidly defended on any law text. There is really no essential difference between an excommunicatus vitandus and a toleratus, the difference being one of solemnity and external behavior only.3'3 The Church cannot permit one who is cut off from her communion to act in her name. This, however, docs not mean that the Sacraments administered by an excommuni­ cated minister 37 are invalid, except in the case of jurisdictional acts and as far as the law expressly disqualifies him. 30 Ep. ad Magnesios, c. 7; Thalhofcr, /. e., p. 242 f. 31 i Pct. 2, 6. 32 Hcb. 5, i. 33 Can. 2257, 5 I34 Can. 2261, $ an exception is nude only in favor of the faithful, who are allowed to ask for Sacraments and Sacramental* (Can. 2263). 35 E. g.t Thalhofcr, I. c., p. 255. 30 Sec Can. 225S. 2261, § 3; 2262, 5 2, n. 2. 37 Can. 22/ίι, 2 1. DIVISION OF THE SACRED LITURGY 7 There arc some devotions which have a popular character, such as the Rosary, the Stations of the Cross, etc.; arc these liturgical serv­ ices? Some maintain that they are, provided they arc conducted by a liturgical person in liturgical dress, according to the rules pre­ scribed by the Church.38 However, the Code seems to contradict this opinion, for Can. 2256, § 1 says: “By divine offices are to be under­ stood those functions of power of order (potestas ordinis') which have been established by divine or ecclesiastical authority and arc performed only by the clergy.” Consequently, if the ministers of the Church alone are allowed to perform divine offices, and divine offices form the substance of the liturgy, the above mentioned de­ votions cannot be regarded as liturgical acts. Nor can the recitation of the Fifteen Decades ever supply the recital of the Breviary. This was only an expedient for missionaries, or, as we might say, an eye­ salve in case of pious scruples. Consequently, such devotions have always been looked upon as private rather than public. On the other hand, the recital of the Breviary, though performed also by non-clerical bodies, is done nomine ecclesiae and with the authority of the Church, and, therefore, is a liturgical prayer, at least by reason of its form and purpose. 3. OBJECT AND DIVISION OF THE SACRED LITURGY Divine worship is regulated by the Church through acts sanctioned by her authority. These acts proceed from the internal religious con­ viction of man that he must worship his Creator and Master. In other words, the "exhibitio religiosa in protestationem servitutis” requires external acts consisting of prayers and gestures. These religious acts arc comprised by the name of latria (service). Latria is the supreme, nay, in fact, strictly speaking, the only kind of worship. Besides, there are hyperdulia and dulia—terms which, like so many others, are hallowed by theological rather than philological usage. The Code says: “To the Blessed Trinity as well as to each of the three Persons, to Christ our Lord, also under the sacramental species, is due the cult of latria; to the Blessed Virgin Mary, the cult of hyperdulia; to the other saints reigning with Christ in Heaven, the cult of dulia.” 38‘ 38 Thalhofcr, A r., I» p. 249, § 16. 3SaCan. 1255, § I. GENERAL NORMS 8 The difference between dulia (including hyperdulia) and latria is as vast as the gulf that separates the creature from the Creator. The relation between dulia and latria, like that between creature and Creator, is purely analogical. Their formal objects arc separate and distinct. The formal object of latria is the virtus religionis, or virtue of religion, which is based upon justice; that of dulia is the virtus ob­ servantiae, as St. Thomas says. To sacred relies and images is due a relative worship, in as far as they refer to persons. The dulia which we exhibit to the person of a Saint is absolute, in contradistinction to the merely relative worship which we give to relics and images. An­ other essential difference is that relics and images, being inanimate objects, may be venerated, but not invoked. “Honor or reverence,” says St. Thomas, “is due solely to rational creatures; those devoid of reason can be honored or reverenced only with respect to some rational creature.” 30 However, man is a needy creature—"Dei mendicus," as St. Augus­ tine says. His fallen nature craves to expiate the evil wrought by sin, he seeks to appease an offended God. This is a propitiatory serv­ ice often connected with the very act of worship. Besides, man feels that he is under obligation to his bountiful and merciful benefactor and consequently offers the sacrificium gratiarum (Eucharistic wor­ ship). And while the sacrifice of praise and gratitude glorifies God, the way by which Yahwe can be induced to show salvation (Ps. 49, 23) is impétration. For all these various acts and, let us say, natural aspirations of man, the Church has established forms hallowed by a long standing tradition. Around the Holy Eucharist, and sub­ ordinate to this center of worship, cluster all the actions or cere­ monies and prayers comprised under the name of liturgy. The division of the liturgy into different parts or sections is vari­ ously given by various authors. We may, therefore, be permitted to adopt our own, as follows: Title I. Requisites for Liturgical Worship, vis., sacred things, seasons, acts (in general) and gestures, musical adorn­ ment. II. The Divine Office, as introducing and surrounding the Eucharistic worship. 30 Summa T/ieol., 2.1 aae, qu. 102 sq. SOURCES OF THE SACRED LITURGY 9 Title III. The Eucharistic Worship, viz., the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and the worship of Christ in the Blessed Sacra­ ment. “ IV. Religious-Divine Worship, viz., veneration of the Saints, processions, vows, and oaths. V. Ritual Worship, viz., initiatory and dedicatory riles. 4. AUTHENTIC SOURCES OH THE SACRED LITURGY (FONTES SACRAE LITURGIAE) The Latin term fontes best expresses the twofold meaning of what is here to be treated. The first arc the fontes essendi. They are noth­ ing else but the lawful authority to establish liturgical laws. The Code says: “The Apostolic See alone has the right to regulate the sacred liturgy and to approve liturgical books.” 40 This, of course, comprises, first and above all, the Roman Pontiff, and, secondly, the sacred Congregations, which latter, however, have only a delegated power and must proceed according to the general and particular rules prescribed by the Pope, to whom they are bound to refer all important and extraordinary questions.41 The Congregation which exclusively regulates the liturgy for the Latin Church is the Sacred Congregation of Rites.4- The Oriental Church, as it is outside the Code, so also in liturgical matters has been withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the S.C. of Rites, being subject to the S.C. for the Oriental Church.43 Are the prelates inferior to the Pope entirely excluded from litur­ gical legislation? The fact that various liturgies exist in the Western Church appears to contradict Can. 1257. History tells us that in the fourth century there were at least four different types of liturgies, viz., the Syrian, the Alexandrian, the Roman, and the Gallican, * 1 and even these underwent some transformation in the course of time. “When liturgical matters were in question, rhe Popes could not reply otherwise than by sending their own books and recommending their own use. In this manner, little by little, the influence of the Roman 40 Can. 1257. 41 Can. 243, § i; Pius X, "Sapienti consilio," June 29, 1908 (/I. Ap. S.. I, 18). 42 Can. 253, §1 ; questions of precedence and allied matters arc withdrawn from its jurisdiction. 43 Can. 1; Can. 257. 44 Dtrchcsnc-McClure, Christian Worship, 1923, p. 55. ΙΟ GENERAL NORMS ritual made itself felt, . . . until at length it ended by almost com­ pletely eliminating the Gallican.” 15 The development was natural and gradual, not violent. Even the Council of Trent did not forbid other rituals which existed at that time. It merely defines that the re­ ceived and approved rites of the Catholic Church may not be con­ temned or omitted without sin and at random by her ministers, nor may they be changed by any pastor.46 Paul V, in his Constitution “Apostolicac Sedis,” June 17, 1614, by which he promulgated the Ro­ man Ritual, strictly forbade all other rituals, but appealed to bishops, abbots, and pastors to use the authentic Roman Ritual in the sacred functions and to keep the traditional rites intact.47 The terms used by Pius V and Clement VIII in the promulgation of the Missal, Breviary, Pontifical, and Martyrology, were much stricter. Yet, even now-a-days, old rituals which were not changed since the Council of Trent may be followed. But in places where no ritual was in vogue, the Roman Ritual must be used, as is certainly the case in the United States. The S. Rit. C. has always advised the adoption of the Roman Ritual where no other was followed. Finally, Roman prac­ tice does not approve particular diocesan or monastic rituals, but allows some propria or minor variations to be added to the Roman Ritual.48 Can. 1257, therefore, intends to vindicate the right of the Apostolic See to regulate the sacred liturgy for the Church at large, as far as this is now generally acknowledged all over the world where the Latin rile is in use. The consequence is that we now have more uniformity, with due consideration for old traditions which do not clash with the definition of the Council of Trent. The adage holds: "Lex orandi, lex credendi"; also the old saying: "Facies non una om­ nibus, nee diversa tamen."49 The fons essendi of the liturgical law may, therefore, be said to be contained in "scrinio pectoris Summi Pontificis." The second class is that of the fontes cognoscendi, or the sources which contain the liturgical laws and rules. The ('ode (Can. 2) “for the most part decrees nothing about the rites and ceremonies which 45 Ibid., p. 96 f. 40 Sess. VII, Can. 13 (Denzingcr, n. 856). 47 See the Rituale Romanum. ed. Pustet. 1926, p. vii f. “Hortamur,’.’ say» the Pontili. 48 See Collatione/ Brugentef, 1926, t. XXVI, p. 414 if; Callcnacrt, /. c., p. 115Î 49 Duchcsne-McClure, /. c., p. 54. SOURCES OF THE SACRED LITURGY u the liturgical books approved by the Latin Church prescribe for the celebration of the Sacrifice of the Mass, the administration of the Sac­ raments and sacramcntals, and other sacred functions. Hence all liturgical laws retain their force unless expressly corrected in the Code.” Consequently, the main source of liturgical knowledge is to be found in the Missal, the Breviary, the Pontifical, the Ceremonial, and the Ritual. a) “Missale Romanum ex decreto S3. Concilii Tridentini restitu­ tum” is the title still printed on all Roman missals. By Bull of July 14, 1570, Pius V commanded that this missal alone be used wherever the Roman rite is followed. No one, of whatever rank he be, was to use any other. “All rites from other missals hitherto observed, how­ ever old, shall in future’be left out and entirely abandoned, and Mass shall be sung or said according to the rite, manner, and standard which is given in this Missal; in celebrating the Mass no one shall dare to add or recite ceremonies or prayers other than those contained herein.” That put an end to all the other rites,—with one impor­ tant exception: the Bull allowed any rite to be kept that could show a prescription of at least two centuries. A few dioceses, such as Lyons, France, kept and still keep their local forms; also some re­ ligious Orders, notably the Dominicans, the Carmelites, and the Car­ thusians. What is much more important is that the exception saved what was left of the ancient rites at Milan, Italy, and Toledo, Spain.50 b) The Pontificale Romanum was first printed as Liber Pontificalis under the editorship of Bishop Burchard of Città di Castello and Bishop Patrizi of Pianza. Pope Clement VIII ordered the first offi­ cial edition by the Constitution “Ex quo” of Feb. 10, 1596, and made it the exclusive book for all pontifical functions in the Western Church. It consists of three parts with formularies, rubrics, and mu­ sical notes, and was reissued by Benedict XIV in 1752, and by Leo XIII in 1888. c) The Caeremoniale Episcoporum contains chiefly rubrics, a por­ tion of which arc also embodied in the Missal, Pontifical, and Ritual. There are three books, as now printed. But its rubrical prescriptions arc intended for the higher ranks, bishops, canons and those taking MSxo. It was also called Liber Connetts from °comcs”—companion. 70 Joh. Diac., Vita S. Greg., 11, c. 6; Tbalhofcr, I. c.> pp. 36 ίί.; Duchesne, I. c., pp. Π3 If. 18 GENERAL NORMS the Masses published by Mono,71 which are entirely Gallican sacramentaries without any Roman admixture; the Letters of St. Ger­ maine of Paris; 72 the Sacramcntarium Gallicanum;73 the Stowe Missal, between the Vlllth and Xth centuries, which has more Roman than Gallican elements.74 The books of the so-called Mozarabic rite have some affiliation with the Gallican rite. This is the last remnant of the old Spanish rite, mixed with Roman elements. These books were chiefly in use at Toledo, Spain, and since the Xth century are known as the Sacramentary of Toledo, Liber Comicus, Antiphonary of Leon, and Liber Ordinum?6 To the same class must also be reckoned the books of the Am­ brosian rite, which, according to Duchesne, is the source of the Gal­ lican rite.7® 71 Lateinische and Gricehische Messen ans dem ztveiten bis sechsien Jahrhundert, Frankfurt, 1850. 72 Reprinted from Martènc in Migne. P.L., vol. 72, col. 89. 73 Published by Mabillon in the Museum Italicum, I, 2. 74 See Duchcsnc-McClurc, p. J 51 ff. Concerning a collection of Niasses of St. Amand sec A. Wilinart, O.S.B., in jahrbuch fur Uiurgte-Wissensehajt, 1923 (III), p. 67 ff. 75 Duchesne-McClure, Z. c., p. 160. 70 Ibid., pp. 90 ff., 160. Title I SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS God, the Creator of all things, is the "leitourgos" of the universe and the whole creation is the temple of His Majesty. However, from the dawn of mankind we find buildings especially devoted to His worship. In fact, the first public structures we know of were temples and altars. Special forms and peculiar rites pointed them out as shrines of the deity. This is true of the Gentile world as well as of the Jewish theocracy. It is, consequently, an inborn idea of mankind to worship God in particular buildings or places.1 The Church, there­ fore, only followed this universal view when she assigned, as far as possible, distinct localities and buildings as places of divine wor­ ship. Among these buildings arc the churches with their altars and sacred utensils. When “Elohim” was about to create the light in the firmament of heaven, His purpose was to divide the day from the night and to set the lights up for signs, and seasons, and days, and years."’ This pur­ pose is fulfilled in the domain of astronomy and agriculture. But it would, we dare say, be a gap in the higher order if these seasons were not hallowed by the spirit of man. When, therefore, Israel was settled in the promised land, it had its holy seasons, days, and years.3 The same practice was taken up by the Church. Thus we have holy sea­ sons and feasts recurring in the course of the year. 1 See Cicero, De Natura Decrum, §2: Plutarch, Adv. Colot. Epic. (Mazzclla. De Religione et Ecclesia, cd. 1S80, p. 13). Plutarch’s saying: "e: si terras obeas, invenire possis urbes muris, litteris, regibus, domibus, opibus, numismate carentes, gymnasi­ orum et theatrorum nescias: urbem templis diisque carentem quae precibus, jure­ jurando, oraculo non utatur, non bonorum causa sacrificet, non mala sacris avertere nitatur, nemo unquam vidit. Sed facilius urbem condi sine solo puto posse, quam, religione et diis penitus sublata, civitatem coire aut constare.” 2Gcn. i, 14. 8 See Seben berger» Practical Handbook for the Study of the Bible, (Engl, trans.), 1911» p. 139if. Chapter I CHURCHES, ALTARS, AND UTENSILS § I. CHURCHES AND ORATORIES A church is a sacred building dedicated to divine worship, open to all the faithful who wish publicly to worship there.1 Concern­ ing the historical development of places of worship, the following may suffice. At Jerusalem, although private houses were used for the “breaking of bread,” 2 the followers of Christ did nor disdain to meet in the Temple. The separation from the synagogue neces­ sitated different quarters for divine worship. In Rome, as we know from monuments, private houses were engaged for that purpose. But we also hear of memoriae, especially the cellae martyrum. For almost three centuries services were held mostly, though not exclusively, in these cemetery chapels. The official name for places of Christian worship was cither the Greek "proseufyerion, ΙφήαΙφη, ecclesia," or the Latin "domus orationis," found on African inscrip­ tions, or "oratorium" or "memoria." From the middle of the fourth century we meet with "basilica" as the name for oratories. The term reminds us of the “basilikc oikia,” or stoa, or judgment hall of the Roman forum (Basilica Julia, Aemilia, etc.). But whether this judg­ ment hall served as the model for what we now understand by basilica is still a controverted question; several authorities of note regard the Roman private house as its basic model. In matter of fact the Roman house naturally lent itself for the purposes of the Christian temple. But it was not copied too closely, for no simple or pre-existing model can adequately account for the arrangement of the Christian basil­ ica? About the tenth century the basilica style developed into the 1 Can. 1161. 2 Acts 2» 46; 3, I. 3 A. Kuhn. AUmeine Kunstgeschichte, Baukfintt, 1909, I, 278 fl; Lowric» Monument/ of the Early Church, 1901, p. 383 f. 21 22 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS Romanesque, which originated in the Benedictine cloisters and took possession of European art up to the thirteenth and fourteenth cen­ turies. In the East, some centuries earlier, the so-called Byzantine style found favor and at least in some quarters, like Ravenna, was transferred to the Western Church. The Gothic style in Northern France and England swayed the fourteenth century and has re­ mained in favor in the above named countries. When Dante and Giotto discovered the nature and pulse of the soul, a rebirth of art began in the Renaissance, which grew luxuriously under the sunny sky of Italy. But the extreme accentuation of nature degenerated into the grotesque and bizarre, although the Barocco style of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries cannot justly be called inartistic. Nay even the Rococo of the eighteenth century has been vindicated by men of sound judgment. The nineteenth century is marked by a re­ awakening of Christian art through the school of the so-called Naza­ renos (Overbeck, Cornelius). The Cubic style, and others of modern trend have been tried and tested, but most of them have been found * wanting.· The Code prescribes no deter mined style, but admonishes the Ordinaries to see to it that new churches are built and old ones repaired in accordance with the traditional styles and the laws of sacred art; and that, if necessary, experts should be consulted.4 5 We have already enumerated the traditional styles. The rules of sacred art are supposed to be known to every Christian architect. The first rule is safety. The second is beauty, as art itself is noth­ ing else but “a beautiful idea cast in a beautiful form.” The third rule is a holy atmosphere; a church should be a temple of the Most High, not a dance-hall. The fourth is that the altar should oc­ cupy a prominent place so that it can be seen from every corner; for the altar is the center of worship. The fifth rule is that the acoustics be good, for a church is also a meeting place for the peo­ ple, where they assemble to hear the Word of God. The sixth rule concerns hygiene and cleanliness. As a seventh rule might be added that the structure should fit into the landscape.0 4 See F. X. Kraus. Geschichtc tier Christlichen Kunst. 1895, Vol. I. p. 5. 5 Can. 1164, 5 1. 0 Compare J. Ruskin, The Seven Lamps of Architecture. CHURCHES AND ORATORIES 23 Λ negative rule is stated in the canon which forbids an opening or window leading from the church into the house of lay people (not a clerical residence). It also forbids a space underneath or above the church which might be used for profane purposes, for instance, dances or banquets.7 The law requires the written consent of the local Ordinary for the building of a church. This consent should not be given unless the Ordinary is convinced that the necessary means will not be wanting for building and keeping up the new church, for support­ ing the ministers, and for defraying the other expenditures of re­ ligious worship. Religious, too, must obtain this consent from the local Ordinary. The latter should inquire as to the probable disad­ vantages which other, already existing, churches might suffer. This inquiry, however, is of little consequence, if the Ordinary thinks that a new church will be of great spiritual benefit to the faithful? There is a strict obligation to have the church either consecrated or blessed before any divine service is held therein.9 Lastly, for the sake of convenience and propriety, every church should have one or several bells.10 By custom and acceptance the following order is observed as to the ran\ of the different kinds of churches: (1) Major basilicas; (2) Cathedral churches; (3) Minor basilicas; (4) Abbey churches, cither of the regular or secular clergy; (5) Collegiate churches; (6) Parish churches; (7) Conventual or religious churches, provided they are such, and not mere oratories; (8) Mission or station churches, some­ times called chaplaincies.11 .Among major basilicas must be men­ tioned the patriarchal churches of Rome, which arc supposed to represent the four patriarchates, vtz., the Latcran church representing the Western or Roman patriarchate, St. Peter’s that of Constanti­ nople, Santa Maria Maggiore that of Antioch, St. Paul’s outside the Walls that of .Alexandria. To these some add the basilica of St. Lawrence outside the Walls as representing the patriarchate of JeruT Can. 1164, § 2; sec our Commentary, Vol. VI, p. 17. *Can. 1162. How much money is required, is left to the prudent judgment of the bishop; Can. 1545. 9Can. 1)65, Si. On these acts, consecration and blessing, see infra. 10 Can. 1169; a strict obligation is not stated in this canon. 11 Many, Praelectiones de Locis Sacris, Paris, 1904, p. 62 f.; Mathacus a Coronata, O.M.C., De laxis et Temporibus Sacris, 1922, p. 8. 24 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS Salem.12 Outside the city of Rome two churches closely con­ nected with St. Francis of Assisi have also been given the title of patriarchal churches, viz., St. Francis at Assisi13 and Santa Maria dcgli Angeli near Assisi.14 The distinction between major and minor basilicas appears to be founded on the age of the respective churches; minor basilicas arc of a later date. They arc so called in the Code, being endowed with that title either by immemorablc custom or by apostolic grant. Their privileges must be judged from either of these two sources.’5 The privileges or rights attached to the major basilicas consist in the papal altar, viz., one on which only the Pope or his delegate may say Mass, and in the right of the Porta Sancta, viz., the right to open the gate at the beginning of the jubilee year, also re­ served to the Pope or his delegate. Besides, the major basilicas also enjoy the privileges of the minor basilicas, which arc: the right of a canopy preceded by a little bell, certain vestments, and the palmatoria (bugia or hand-candlestick).10 The vestments for the secular canons of such basilicas arc the cappa magna or wide cloak faced with ermine; in summer lime its place is taken by a laced cotta, worn over the rochet. Oratories The Code distinguishes three kinds of oratories, viz.: public, semi­ public, and private. This distinction is rather modern and was most probably introduced for practical purposes by the S.R.C. about thirty years ago. A public oratory is one built for the benefit of a certain corporation, or of private individuals, but in such a manner that all the faithful have the right to frequent it, al least at the lime when divine services arc held there. Semi-public oratories arc built for the convenience of a certain community or class of people, but arc not open to all the faithful indiscriminately. Private or domestic ora«Wernz, fus Decretalium, 111» n. 428. «Benedict XIV, March 25, 1754. 14 Pius X» April 11, 1909 (Λ. Ap. S., V, I, 394). 15 See Decreta Auth. S.R.C., 2744» Vol. IV, p. 358. Cfr. Can. 1180. «The canopy has the shape of an umbrella or tent, and is therefore also called papilio, magnum umbraculum, tabernaculum. On the top of the stem is a knob mounted by a small cross and a silk ribbon of the papal color. It is carried in front of the procession held by the clergy of the basilica. See Decreta Aut., tuffragium ruper Decreto, n. 2744. CHURCHES AND ORATORIES 25 tories are those erected in private homes for the convenience of a family or private individuals. Practically speaking, there is but a thin line of demarcation between a church and a public oratory, especially since can. 1191, §2 states that public oratories arc gov­ erned by the same law as churches. Consequently, all priestly func­ tions can be performed in public oratories, even the parochial func­ tions, if the local Ordinary grants express permission or exempts a public oratory from the parish organization.17 Such oratories must be cither consecrated or blessed, and thus dedicated to the divine service just like churches. Semi-public oratories can only be erected with the permission of the local Ordinary or of the superior of an exempt religious clerical com­ munity. Before permission is given, an inspection must be held con­ cerning: (a) the building, which should represent a sacred edifice and be constructed of solid materials, or at least plastered; (b) the furni­ ture and utensils which arc required for the sacred functions, also the neatness and cleanliness of the place; (c) the surroundings of the oratory and its destination. The chapel must not be used for profane purposes. The S. Congregation has in more than one instance insisted that there should be no dormitory immediately above the oratory or, if this cannot be avoided, that a canopy (baldachino) be placed over the altar. Furthermore, the chapel must not contain wardrobes, chests or trunks for profane use, nor must it be allowed to serve as a parlor or recreation or work room; nor as a hallway, infirmary, or dormi­ tory. The law prescribes neither consecration nor blessing proper; but the “benedictio loci” should certainly be applied. As to the divine offices and ecclesiastical functions, the Code says that these may be held in semi-public oratories, lawfully erected, unless the rubrics prohibit them or the Ordinary has exempted some functions.18 Hence all the functions may be performed as in the public oratories, provided no clash with strictly parochial rights is to be feared. All the Sacraments may be administered, with the following, restrictions, however: (a) general ordinations, viz., those of the six Saturdays, should be held in the cathedral church, whilst special ordinations may be held in the episcopal chapel, or in the seminary chapel, or in that ,TScc our Commentary, Vol. VI, p. 71. uCan. 1193. 20 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS of religious; 19 (b) weddings should not be performed in the chapcis of seminaries or of female religious institutes, except for urgent rcasons; 20 (c) Baptism may be conferred in semi-public oratories only with the permission of the local Ordinary,21 or, in case the oratory has been exempted from the parish organization.22 Funerals may be held in semi-public oratories of exempt religious who arc entitled to have their members buried from their chapel.23 With regard to the reservation of the Blessed Sacrament, the Code lays down the follow­ ing rule: “The Holy Eucharist may be kept, with the permission of the local Ordinary, in the collegiate churches,24 in the principal pub­ lic or semi-public oratories of charitable or religious houses, as well as those of ecclesiastical colleges in charge of cither secular or re­ ligious clergy.” 25*But the Code also requires that there be a custodian and that a priest say Mass there at least once a week.20 With regard to other ecclesiastical functions, such as solemn and private Masses, blessing and distribution of candles (Feb. 2), ashes, palms, exposition at Forty Hours’ Devotion, announcements of feasts and fasts,27 the Asperges on Sundays, the churching of women, they arc all allowed in semi-public oratories, unless, as stated in Can. 1193, the local Ordinary should make exceptions. There seems to be some doubt concerning the functions of Holy Weel(, on account of certain decisions of the S.R.C.28 But to our mind there can be only two reasons for denying the performance of that service, viz.: a lack of ministers or vestments (paramenta), so · that the ceremonies cannot be performed, even according to the Memoriale of Benedict XIII, and a prohibition of the local Ordinary. Can. 1193 seems to be plain enough. Consequently the legislator, ac­ cording to Can. 2, has corrected the former liturgical laws in this 19 Can. 1009. 20 Can. 1109» § 2. 21 Can. 776. 22 Can. 464, § 2. 23 Can. 1221; Can. 1230; Can. 464, ί 2. 24 A collegiate church is one, not of cathedral rank, in which a chapter of canons holds services. 25 Can. 1265. 5 i, n. 2. 20 Can. cic. 27 But no announcements of ordinations (Can. 998) or marriages (Can. 1024) arc allowed, unless for a very particular reason. 2* Especially n. 3366 as compared with n. 3698; Decreta Authentica. CHURCHES AND ORATORIES 27 respect. “Quod voluit legislator expressit, quod noluit tacuit." 29 Another question concerns the saying o£ a private or low Mass on Holy Thursday, in ease the Holy Week services arc not, or cannot be, held in a semi-public oratory. The S.R.C., on Aug. 31, 1839, de­ cided that a low Mass may be said by the superior of regulars, to distribute Holy Communion. On Dee. 9, 1899, the same S. Congrega­ tion decided that this favor is strictly limited to regulars and can­ not be extended to seminaries or religious (pious) houses.30 Here again we have a partial correction in the Code. For can. 1368 exempts the seminary from the pastor. Consequently, we hold that the semi­ nary director may say a low Mass and distribute Communion on Holy Thursday. Concerning the semi-public oratories of religious who arc not regulars (the decision uses the word “regulars,” not “exempt"), we arc not so certain, though some authors extend it to all religious communities.31 The wording of the decree doubtless is against such extension. Therefore, only a papal induit or a custom can be alleged in favor of religious. Finally, it may not be amiss to enumerate specifically some semi­ public oratories. They arc: (a) the episcopal chapel in the bishop’s residence and, most probably at least, also the chapels in some other house of the diocese where the bishop may perchance reside, for instance, a summer resort; (b) the principal chapels of religious communities, whether exempt or not; (c) seminary and college chapels; (d) chapels of charitable institutions, e.g., hospitals, or­ phanages, homes for the aged, provided they are properly erected; (c) chapels in prisons and barracks, provided they are lawfully estab­ lished;32 (f) chapels on steamers and other vessels, with the same and some other provisos.33 Concerning the calendar or directory to be used in public and semi­ public oratories, the rules laid down by the S.R.C., arc as follows: 20 Decreta Auth.> n. 2799. 30 Ibid.. n. 4049. 31 Thus Leitner, quoted by Mathaeus ù Coronata» 1. c., p. 81. 32 It is futile to say that oratories locorum piorum independrnter ab ordinario erec­ torum (Maihaeus à Coronata. /. c. p. 77) are semi-public oratories; for there is no such locus pius acknowledged by law (see Can. 1492), neither can a semi-public oratory be erected as such, except with the permission of die local Ordinary or the exempt reli­ gious superior. 53 There arc certain conditions attached to saying Mass on board ship; see S.R.C., Mar. 4, 1901 {Decreta Atith., n. 4069; S.C.P.F., Mar. t, 1902; Collect., n. 21 $o). 28 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS (a) all priests, either secular or religious, who say Mass in a church or public oratory, must conform to the calendar of the respective church or public oratory; in case the rubrics permit it, however, they may say a “black” or votive or ferial Mass.3·* (b) In semi-public oratories, such as arc erected in episcopal residences, seminaries, col­ leges, hospitals, religious houses, the priest, though he be the only one who says Mass there, either secular or regular, must use the diocesan calendar or directory.35 (c) A somewhat dubious decision was rendered by the same S. Congregation in the case of some Sisters in the diocese of Linz, Austria. There were two chapels, one for the Sisters, the other for the students, both attended by the Canons Regular of St. Florian, to whom the charge of the Sisters and girls was entrusted by the bishop. Now the question was asked, whether the Canons Regular could follow their own calendar in that institute or not. The answer was: in the principal public or semi-public chapel the Canons Regular must adopt the diocesan directory, but in the other chapel, it being a private one (utpote privato), they arc allowed to follow their own calendar.36 This is a somewhat surprising de­ cision, because the chapel of the girls—for this wc suppose was taken by the S. Congregation as the “private” one—or an institution chapel could now, in view of the definition in Can. ri88, § 2, n. 2, hardly be styled a private oratory. Be that as it may, the rule is that regulars who have their own calendar must relinquish it and follow the diocesan calendar in public and semi-public oratories. This holds also with regard to Sisters’ chapels, for instance, of Benedictine Sisters who have only simple vows.37 An exception is made in favor of the Franciscan Sisters (with simple vows) who arc aggregated to one of the three branches, viz., Brown, Conventual, or Capuchin. These Sisters, although they recite only the Little Office of B.V.M., are en34 July 9> 1895 (see Decreta Autn.. n. 3862); sec new rubrics of the Missal, Tir. IV, 6. 35S.R.C.» June 27, 1896, ad XVII (Dea era Auth., n. 3919); May 22, 1896 (ibid., n. 3910); July 17, 1896 (ibid., n. 3928). Tn regard to oratories, (hr question is still somewhat unsettled; in n. 3910 and 3919 we read: '7/ oratoria habenda sint nr pub­ lica"; "quae instar oratorii publici." 30S.R.C., Feb. 11, 1910 (Decreta Auth., n. 4248). 37 If, however, their constitutions state that they arc entitled to their own calendar, the latter should be followed (see Decreta Auth., n. 3972, ad. 4.). Besides, if Benedictine Sisters should be affiliated by Rome with Benedictine Fathers, the logical consequence would be that the Benedictine priest, when saying Mass in such a chapel» should follow his own, not the diocesan, ordo. ALTARS 29 titled to follow the calendar, Missal and Martyrology of the respec­ tive Order to which they are affiliated.38 In strictly private oratories, viz., those erected by virtue of a papal induit, only one low Mass may be said daily, including Sundays, but not on the more solemn feasts. To have a Mass on these feasts the express permission of the Ordinary is required, and this permission can only be given per modum actus, viz., as long as the reason lasts for which the gran? is made. Other ecclesiastical functions arc not permitted in such oratories; 30 but Holy Communion may be dis­ tributed there, confessions of both sexes may be heard {cum cautelis pro mulierum confessionibus), and weddings may be blessed with the permission of the local Ordinary.40 A priest who says Mass in such an oratory must follow his own calendar; viz., the diocesan, if he is a secular priest, or that of his institute, if he is one of the regular clergy who have their own directory, for instance, a Benedictine.41 §2. ALTARS The earliest altar was a mere table. It consisted of a rectangular and slightly oblong top, supported by one, four, or occasionally five, legs. This simple and natural shape was retained until well into the fifth century. From the beginning, stone as well as wooden altars were employed. Gradually, the Church came to discriminate in favor of stone on account of its monumental character and greater durability. A change in the form of the altar was brought about in the sixth century by the new impetus given to the veneration of relics. The Holy Eucharist was brought into close relation with the tombs of the martyrs, and it was regarded as a matter of prime importance that the altar be brought into the closest possible relation with the tomb, or at least be located directly above it. This was done by build­ ing a “confessio,” i.e., a chamber surrounding the tomb and con­ nected with the altar by a shaft or gallery. The next stage in the de­ velopment of the altar arose from the custom, which spread rapidly ysS.R.C., Jan. 22, 1906 {Anal. Eccl., t. XIV, not recorded in Decreta Auth.). 30 Can. i >95. 40 Sec Can. 869: 908-910; 1109. $ 2. 11 S.R.C., Feb. ii, 1910 (see Decreta Auth., n. .|2.;8). 30 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS during the sixth century, of depositing the bodies of martyrs within the churches. This often led to the construction of a true “confes­ sio” or crypt; but more frequently the relies were deposited immedi­ ately beneath the plate of the altar and enclosed within a stone “cippus” or block, roughly cubical in form, hollowed within, and ornamented on the front by a doorway, like a miniature tomb. Finally, the altar was enclosed on all four sides by plates of stone and became a mere chest for the preservation of relics. Sometimes a sarcophagus or fully extended body was enclosed. The custom of erecting more than one altar in the same church grew out of the cull of relics. Such secondary altars came into use about the begin­ ning of the fifth century, at first in side chapels, later in the main church, nay, even in the nave.4In addition there were other altars which could be moved from place to place, just like the wooden altars of the first three centuries. These were in use from time immemorial. In the Middle Ages wc find such altaria portatilia or gestatoria made of stone, often of precious stone, and set in a wooden frame, which was frequently plated with gold or silver and enamelled. In place of these portable altars the Eastern Church substituted antanensia, which arc still in use. They were a quadrangular cloth of silk, blessed by the bishop, with sacred relics sewed into it.43 The law and rubrics governing the altar arc as follows: I. Defini­ tion and species: In the liturgical sense of the word an immovable or fixed altar means the upper table with its supports, consecrated together as a whole with the table. A movable or portable altar is a stone, generally of small size, which is consecrated alone, and called portable altar or sacred stone; or the same stone with its support, even though the latter was not consecrated together with the table. In every consecrated church at least one, preferably the main, altar must be immovable; but in churches that are only blessed, all altars may be movable. 42 Lowrie, Monuments of the Early Church, 1901, p. 159 if. 43 The altar signifies, first and above al!, the table on which our Ix>rd instituted the Holy Eucharist. It also conveys rhe idea of the sacred place where He accomplished the redemption of mankind. Furthermore it raises the mind to the heavenly Jerusalem, where the Lamb is slain and adored (sec Apec. V. XIV). Lastly the altar reminds the faithful of the Communion of Saints and of the spiritual altar on which rhe prayers of the faithful arc offered (Apec. VI, 9 fif.; Catechism"? Romanus, P. Il, cap. 7). ALTARS 31 2. Requisites: The table of an immovable as well as that of a port­ able altar must consist of one natural stone, whole and not easily crumbled. The altar stone is to be one single slab, which excludes several parts.41 *44 Even if the several parts were compactly cemented together so as to appear as one stone, the altar could not be validly consecrated.'15 A natural or pure stone is one that corresponds to the mineralogical definition of a stone. Any hard and compact stone is admissible, e. g., marble, granite, sandstone^ travertine, etc. Even slate or schist is allowed, but pumice-stone or gypsum have been rejected.4'5* Cement plates or blocks must be considered forbidden because of their composite nature. The S. Congregation has always refused to admit a marble or wooden cornice or ornament surrounding the altar like a wreath.47 An altar, the nucleus of which is of stone, but cov­ ered with bricks overlaid with a marble crust, has also been declared unconsecrable.48 Integer means that the stone should be of one piece, without fractures or crevices. Should the stone have been perforated by cutting or chiseling the repository for relics into it, it would be sufficient to place a piece of marble or other solid slab on the part below, so that the capsula with the relics could be laid on it.49 That the stone should be of a sort that will not easily crumble (jriabilis) follows from the nature of stone. If it were so fragile that a fourth part or more would break οίϊ in the act of consecration, the latter would be invalid.50 In an immovable altar the table or stone plate must extend over the whole altar and be properly joined to the sup­ port; the support itself, or at least the side props or columns which support the table, must be of stone. 'I‘he sacred stone (portable altar) must be so large that at least the host and the larger part of the base of the chalice may find room thereon. No dimensions for an altar arc prescribed by the rubrics or the 41 Can. 1198; &.R.C., June 17, 1843» Nov. I0· >906 {Decreta Auth., n. 2861, .',191). •‘“S.R.C., Sept. 28, 1872; June 8, 1896; Nov. 10, 1906, ad I, II (nn. 3286, 3907, 4191); but the church would be validly consecrated. 4«S.R.C., April 29, 1887; June 13, 1899 (nn. 3675, 4032). 47 S.R.C.. Aug. 29, 1885; April 23, 1893 (nn. 3640, 3797). 48 S.R.C., Dec. 14, 1888 (n. 3698); but the invalidity of consecration is not clearly pronounced. «S.R.C.. Feb. 8. 1896 (n. 3884). i0 S.R.C., June 8, 1894. n. Il (n. 3S29). 32 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS S. Congregation of Rites. It ought, however, to be large enough to allow a priest conveniently to celebrate the Holy Sacrifice upon it, in such a manner that all the ceremonies can be decorously observed.51 But the S. Congregation has insisted, as does the Code, that the altar stone should cover the whole length and width of the fixed altar, without any ornamental addition.52 If, for instance, the whole length of the fixed altar is ten feet, and its width from rhe tabernacle to the front twenty-two inches, the altar stone must have the same dimen­ sions. It is absolutely required that the table or mensa be placed im­ mediately upon the support, so as to form one whole with it. In one case the S. Congregation demanded that if no connection between the altar-stone and the “stipes” had been made, stone "stipes” should be added. The consecration was declared valid, yet only by special favor was the addition and separate annointing of these “stipes” granted.03 From this it is evident that only a moral, though material, conjunction is required, at least for licitness.54 But the connection must be one of stone with stone. The support, therefore, must be of stone. It may be one solid mass of marble, granite, etc., or it may consist of four or more columns. But it is absolutely necessary that these sides, columns or small piers, be of stone.55 Columns of copper, brass or other metal are not allowed. If the bases arc metal, the shaft, and more especially the capitals, must be of stone, or a stone layer must be placed between the columns and the table, otherwise it cannot be consecrated as a fixed altar.05 The spaces between the side walls (columns or piers) may be left open, or the spaces on the sides and back may be filled with any kind of stone, brick or cement; but the space between the two columns in front should be left open, so that a reliquary may be placed below the table.57 In an immovable altar as well as in the altar stone there must be, according to the rubrical prescriptions, a sepulchre containing relics of saints and closed with a stone. 51 Cfr. Schulte, Consecranda, 1907, p. 6. 62S.R.C., Aug. 29, 1885 (n. 3640); the altar was only 2.27 meters in length and 0.57 meters in width, wherefore they put a marble cornice around it. i:'S.R.C., June 8, 1894; July 5. <»«’. 3829. 4075)· 54 Many, !)e Locif Sacris, 1904. Ρ· 204. «S.R.C., Aug. 7, 1875: 1)«· *4- >888 (nn. 3364, 3698). 6CS.R.C., May 24, 1901 (n. 4073). 67 S.R.C., Sept. 28, 1872; Dec. 20, 1864 (mi. 3282, 3126). ALTARS 33 The sepulchrum is a small square or oblong opening made in the table or solid support of the altar, in which the relics are placed. In a fixed or immovable altar the sepulchre may be placed cither behind the altar or midway between its table and fool; όγ at the front; or midway between its table and foot, or in the table at its center, some­ what towards the front edge, if its base be solid or hollow; or in the center on top of the support, if it be solid.58 In portable altars the sepulchre is located on top of the stone, usually towards the front edge?1' A portable altar described as consisting of two parts, the up­ per one of which was of stone, whereas the lower was of wood, with a hollow space between for the relics, which thus touched both the stone and wooden parts of which the sepulchre was formed, was declared inadmissible. The sepulchre must be of natural stone, not of metal, brass, or cement. The lid, too, must be of stone, though cement may be used for closing it.00 If cement was used for the whole sepulchre, the altar must be reconsecrated; but the S. Congregation granted faculties to use the short formula and have it done by a dele­ gated priest.01 The cement to be used for closing the sepulchre must be blessed by the bishop, according to the formula prescribed for fixed altars. The bishop must lay the cement on the sepulchre and close, but not place his seal upon it.02 As to the relics to be placed in the sepulchre, it is understood that only authenticated ones are admissible. Provided they arc authenti­ cated, it matters not if they arc of nameless Saints.03 Doubtful or uncertain relics arc not to be mixed with authenticated ones.64 If relics lie open and no attestation of their authenticity can be found, they must be replaced by authentic ones and re-enclosed in the sepulchre.63 The quality of relics is not determined, except that they must be relics of Saints. However, it is the general practice, confirmed by official decisions, that there should be relics of at least one martyr, sft Schulte, Consecranda, p. y ff. 6»S.R.C., Aug. 31, 1867 (n. 3162). "°S.R.C., Sept. 16, 1881 : Dec. 15, 1882; July 28, 1883 (nn. 3532, 3567, 3585). Port­ able altars may nut be of pumicc-stonc or gypsum; S.R.C., June 13, 1899 (n. 4032). 01 S.R.C., Aug. 30, 1901 (n. 4082). e2S.R.C., May 10, 1890 (n. 3726). 03 S.R.C., Sept. 7, 1630 (n. 542). 04 S.R.C., Dec. 5, 1851 (n. 2991, ad I). e5S.R.C., Feb. 27, 1847 (n. 2941): "S.C. sanavit defectus." 34 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS to which relics of confessors and virgins may be added.00 Whether these relics must be taken from the body (direct relics) or may be obtained from objects connected with the Saint (indirect relics), is nowhere stated, although some writers, like Gardellini, insist on direct relics.07 3. Form of altars. The main idea of an altar should always be that of a sacrificial table. But in the Middle Ages it received an ex­ tension, especially in height and width, which is hardly reconcilable with the primary notion. Rercdos were erected to make room either for the relics 08 or for statues or pictures. Hence, the so-called tryptics with a main and two side wings. Besides, room had to be made for large candlesticks and for ornamental embellishments. However, as the Church is ever more sober than the popular imagination, so arc the general rules for the building of altars and for the additional ornaments. a) Concerning the dimensions of the main altar, as was said, no fixed rules arc given. But authors 60 generally, with some slight varia­ tions, suggest that there ought to be three steps from three sides of the sanctuary floor. Each of the two lower steps should be about 6 to 6% inches high and from 13 to 14 inches wide. The "suppedaneum” or platform, to which the upper step leads, should be as long as the mcnsa and not less than 39 or 40 inches wide or deep. The distance, from the platform to the upper edge of the mensa should be no more than 40 inches. The length of the mcnsa or altar table is, of course, to lx· determined by the size of the main altar, but should never be less than about 67 inches, its width from the front to the rercdos or candlestick stand about 2 feet.70 The high altar must stand free, and be about 12 to 14 feet distant from the rails, or, in smaller churches, about 4 feet, viz., from the lowest step to the railing. ««S.R.C., Oct. 6, 1837; Feb. 16, 1906 (nn. 1777» 4>8o). 1,7 Cfr. Many, /. c., p. 208; Schulte, /. c.. p. 10, also rejects indirect relics; but c. 26, Dist. i, de cons., admits them. «s The more they could put in or on the altar, the greater the honor, they thought; a quaint example is given by Thalliofcr, I. c., p. 756. 69 Ci. Wappdhorst, /. c., p. 15, n. 9; Thalhofer, /. c.. p. 769; Hartmann. Repertorium Rituum, 1898, p. 782; Vencroni, I. c.. Vol. 1. p. 173 f·; American Eccl. Review, Vol. 31, p. 40 if. 70 Here a practical remark may be made: It is hard to give accurate measures for this width, but it is simply absurd to build tabernacles so far away from the edge of the altar that a normally sized priest has to wrench his limbs to reach the ciborium. ALTARS 35 l>) Side altars, though having the character of portable altars, should be built so as to present the form of fixed altars, but may be cased in by walls or tapestry. They may not be placed under the pulpit or organ loft, or opposite the high altar, or, without per­ mission, in the nave of the church.71 Their size is not determined except by that of the mensa and the practical consideration of the necessary ornaments to be put thereon. They generally have only one step. 4. Ornaments to be put upon the main altar arc described, or at least mentioned as necessary, in the Roman Missal. a) Altar cloths, which were in vogue from the earliest times,72 are prescribed by the Roman Missal as follows: The altar must be cov­ ered with three clean cloths (of linen or hemp) blessed by those who have the power to do so; the uppermost cloth shall hang to the ground down on each side, while the two others, or one doubled, must cover ar least the mcnsa.73 The chrismale or waxcloth is re­ quired only at the time of consecration. b) An antependiutn should cover the front of the altar. Its color should correspond with the feast or office.71 No black is allowed dur­ ing the exposition of the Blessed Sacrament. Besides, no antcpendium is required at all, if the altar has the shape of a tomb, or if its front is of marble or other material properly adorned,70 for instance, if the Last Supper or the Sacrifice of Isaac is presented. c) The Rubrics of the Missal prescribe: “Let a cross be placed in the middle of the altar between the candlesticks.”75 76 The height of the cross should be such that the corpse of the crucifix surpasses the height of the candlesticks.7778 The size of the crucifix must be of such dimensions that it can be readily seen by the priest and people.™ If a seventh candle (when a prelate celebrates) is placed in the middle 71 Hartmann, /. c., p. 782. But side chapcis arc certainly allowed without special permission. 72 Thalhofer. /. c., p. 773 refers to Optatus of Milcvc (fourth century) and to the text of John XX, where the plural cloth is used, a remembrance of the sheets wherein the body of our Lord was wrapped. 78 Rubricae Generales, XX. 75 Wappdhorst. Z. c., p. 15. 76 Rubricae Generales. XX. 77 Caere tn. Episc., 1. 12, 11. 78 Benedict XIV, Accepimus. July 16, 1746. 36 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS of the altar, the cross is to be put in front, i. e., the seventh candle­ stick behind the cross. If the main figure of the altar is a crucifixion group, no cross is required.70 But an image of the crucifix engraved or printed on the tabernacle door is not sufficient to dispense with the cross.80 The place to put the cross is between the two candle­ sticks. Where there is a tabernacle, the cross should not be placed be­ fore the door of the tabernacle, but may be placed above it.81 Neither should the cross be put on the throne where the Blessed Sacrament is exposed, nor on the corporal used for exposition.82 It is not stated that no cross should stand on the altar during exposition. It is not per­ mitted to cover the cross with a piece of cloth against dust.83 d) As stated, the general rubrics prescribe al least two candlesticks on each side of the cross. This number is increased in the Ceremonial of Bishops to six, three on each side of the cross, for the main altar.81 What the same authority says concerning the ascending scale from the outside towards the cross is not observed; and the contrary custom is perfectly legitimate (S.R.C., July 25, 1855; n. 3035). They may be placed directly on the altar table or on the reredos. Candlesticks may be made of precious metal, brass, copper, or wood, but should be de­ cently adorned.85 These, of course, arc not the main ornament, thc( more practical and significant part being the candles to be put in these candelabra.80 Two kinds of candles are distinguished, viz., those made of common or yellow wax, and those made of bleached or white wax. The yellow wax candles are used for “black" Masses, at the Tenebrae of Holy Week, and the Missa Praesanctificatorum on Good 70 Benedict XIV, I. c. 80S.R.C.> July 16, 1663 {Dec. Aath., n. <270, 1). The significance of the cross is described by Bona and Durandus: “Ab aspectu crucis sacerdoti celebranti passio Christi in memoriam revocatur, cuius passionis viva imago et repraesentatio hoc sacrificium est.” (De Sacr. Missae, I. 1» 1, c. 25, n. 8). “Ponitur inter duo candelabra, quoniam Christus in Ecclesia mediator extitit. Ipse enim lapis angularis, qui fecit utraque unum, ad quem pastores a Judca et magi ab oriente venerum.” S.R.C., June n, 1904 (n. 4136). *2S.R.C., June 15, 1883 (n. 3576). 83 S.R.C., Sepe. 12. 1857 (n. 3059, XI). But we believe that to cover it with a gauze against flics would not be forbidden. 84 L. I, c. 12, n. 11. 65 Caercmoniaie Episc., I. e. 33 The practical use of light was made manifest when the H. Sacrifice was offered in private houses and in the darkness of the catacombs: the symbolical meaning of light is that of energy, joy, grace, truth; sec Ps. 118, 105; Job. 8» 12, etc. (Thalhofcr, /. c., 5 52). ALTARS 37 Friday; white candles at all other liturgical functions.87 The general rule is that all candles used at liturgical functions should he made of pure beeswax. Therefore, candles made of stearine (animal fat), or of paraffin (hydrocarbon or brown coal), or of tallow are not per­ mitted for liturgical use.88*91 Metal candlesticks in which some kind of candle is set may be tolerated.80 However, questions were proposed to the S. Congregation concerning the purity of beeswax. Adultera­ tions made it difficult to find pure material and several bishops laid the question before the S. Congregation: “Whether, considering the great difficulty of getting real beeswax or of eliminating undue mix­ tures with other materials, (a) all the candles must be wholly made of beeswax; or (b) whether these candles may contain a mixture with vegetable or animal fat?” The answer was negative to the first and affirmative to the second part. Then stating its mind, the S. Con­ gregation added that bishops should sec to it that at least the Paschal Candle and two of the candles used at Mass should be in maxima parte of beeswax; that the other candles placed on the altars should be made of beeswax in the greater and more notable proportion. This would spell, perhaps, in percentages: 67-75% beeswax for the first class (maxima parte) and at least 51% for the other candles. Then the S. Congregation very prudently advises pastors to follow the rules laid down by their bishops and not to trouble themselves at the Holy Sacrifice about the quality of the candles.00 So far, the S.C. has not admitted any other light for strictly liturgical use; hence, neither gas nor electric light may be substituted for candle light. Electric light, however, is permitted for illuminating the church, provided it docs not produce too much of a theatrical effect.01 If there be any doubt as to the tenacity of the S.C. in adhering to the traditional light, the touching prayers on Candlemas Day should disperse it. The manner of lighting the candles has thus been explained by the S. Congregation: The candles on the epistle side should be lit first, commencing with those nearest to the cross; 87 Caeremoniae Epire., II. io, 4: 11, 22, 4: II, 25, 2. e8S.R.C., Dec. 10, 1857 («· 306$). 80S.R.C., May 11, 1870, ad Xlll (n. 3448). 00 S.R.C., Dec. 14, 1904 (n- 4*47)· 91 S.R.C., June 4. 1895 (n. 3859): May 16, 1902 (n. 4097); Nov. 22, 1907 (n. 4206); as to gas, sec S.R.C., Nov. 29, 1901 (n. 4086). 38 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS then those on the gospel side, in the same order. They should be ex­ tinguished in inverse order.''2 c) Although the general rubrics of the Missal prescribe a so-called Sanctus Candle, to be lit on the epistle side from the Sanctus to the Communion inclusive, the S. Congregation admitted die contrary custom.®3 f) On the epistle side a stand or cushion should be placed for the Missal, to be moved to the Gospel side according to the rubrics?'1 g) An altar card is required. The general rubrics mention only one,®5 but custom has introduced two more. One is placed in the middle of the altar, one on the epistle side, and one on the gospel side. The print should be large, clear, and legible.90 A little bell is also prescribed by the Missal. The Missal also directs that the glass cruets for the wine and water should be placed in a niche or window or on a small table especially made for the purpose.1'7 The cruets should be of glass, so that the wine can be dis­ tinguished from the water. The general rubrics conclude thus: “Let nothing be placed on the altar that docs not pertain to the Sacrifice of the Mass or to the ornaments of the altar itself." 98 h) The term ornaments applies also to relics of Saints, although these arc exposed also as objects of veneration. The Ceremonial for Bishops says that relics of Saints or reliquaries (shrines) may be placed on the altar between the candlesticks, if the location or length of the altar permits." The relics must be those of canonized Saints. Relics of the Beatified may not be publicly exposed without a spe­ cial induit, except in places where their Office and Mass are cele­ brated by permission of the Holy See.10'1 The relics should he ex­ posed in shrines or cases. No other relics arc to be placed in the same 02S.R.C., Feb. I, 1907 (n. 4198). This is an analogous interpretation taken from the Tenebrae candles (Caerem. Episc.. II» 22, 11). to S.R.C.» June 1899» ad II (n. 4029). In die U. S. the contrary custom prevails (ex­ cept in some German churches). ul Rub. 67»., XX. Ibid. to Vcneroni» I. c., p. 192. Rub. Gen.. XX. to Rubricae Generales. XX. to L. I» c. 12. n. 12. Therefore relics may not be placed just behind die cross in the middle of the altar. 100 Can. 1287» J 3. ALTARS 39 shrine with relics of the Holy Cross for exposition.101 Relics which are not authenticated by trustworthy documents should be removed by the authority of the bishop.10- There is no obligation to expose relics on the altar; bur if they arc exposed, they should be in a decent setting, and at least two lights must burn on the altar by day.103104 From the decisions it appears that the lights must burn only when the relics are exposed in such a way that they can be seen."14 No relics, not even those of the Holy Cross or the Passion, arc allowed to re­ main on the altar during the exposition of the Blessed Sacrament; nor may they ever take the place of the cross, or be placed above the tabernacle or before rhe tabernacle door.105* 107 i) Images or statues may also be used to ornament the altar, to in­ cite the faithful to devotion and veneration. The Code of Canon Law says: “Only those servants of God may be publicly worshiped, who are counted among the Saints and Blessed by the authority of the Church.” 100 Unusual pictures and images may not be exposed in churches or sacred places (including those of exempt religious), unless the approval of the local Ordinary has been obtained. The Ordinaries shall never allow any sacred images to be publicly ex­ hibited to rhe veneration of the faithful, unless these images are in keeping with the approved usage of the Church. An unusual image is one that represents persons or events in a manner which has no justification either in Holy Writ or in tradition. Thus, to represent the Holy Ghost in the form of a young man has never been sanc­ tioned, but rather reprobated, by the Church. The Blessed Trinity may not be represented by a man with three heads, or by a man with two heads and a dove between them.’07 A statue or painting repre­ senting the Sorrowful Mother dressed in black and holding a crucifix 101 Can. 1287, § i f. 102 Can. 1284. 103S.R.C., Aug. 12, 1854, nd XIII: "thecae deauratae . . . saltern duo lumina" (n. 3029); during the Divine Offices two more lights must burn on the altar if the relic is exposed on the main or choir altar; S.R.C.» March 20, 1869 (n. 3204). 104 N. 3029: "apertae”; a gauze doth docs not prevent the sight of the relicsconscquently two lights must burn. 1<'3S.R.C., Apr. 3. 1821, η. VI; May 19, 1838; Sept. 6, 1845; May 12, 1836» n. 1. (nn. 2613, 2779, 2906, 27.10). 100 Can. 1277, § «; can. >*79. S 1; see our Commentary. Vol. VI, 241 f. 107 The Holy Gho*t may not be represented in human form, cither with the Father and the Son, or without them (H.O., March 16» 1928; /f. Ap. S., XX, X03). 40 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS in her left hand would he an unusual picture. Pictures of the Sacred Heart of Jesus representing the Heart alone, without the rest of the body, arc not allowed to be publicly exhibited on altars, but may be used for private devotion. The title "Cor Jestt Eucharislicum” is neither canonical nor liturgical, and hence no pictures of it may be exhibited to the veneration of the faithful. The Ordinary shall never permit the exhibition in churches or sacred places of images which offend against dogma, or decency, or propriety, or which arc apt to lead the ignorant into error. Images which possess great value by rea­ son of their antiquity, or artistic finish, or the veneration given co them, and which have been exhibited to the veneration of the faith­ ful in public oratories or churches, if in need of repairs, must not be restored without the written consent of the Ordinary, who shall seek advice from wise and experienced men before he grants such a per­ mission. j) Flowers, green twigs or plants, and also artificial flowers made of silk and placed in vases, may be put on the altar. They must be re­ moved during Advent and Lent, except “Gaudete" and “Laetare” Sundays, Holy Thursday, Holy Saturday, and the Vigil of Christ-· mas. It is also permitted to have flowers on the altar during the month of March, though it falls within the Lenten season, in honor of Saint Joseph or on account of the first Communion of children.108 § 3. The Tabernacle Although now considered a part and parcel of the altar, especially the main altar, the tabernacle is not essential to the altar, nor was it attached to it in ancient times. The Holy Eucharist was kept in socalled columbaria, or dove-like vases, suspended from the canopy (baldachino) of the altar, or from the wall of the apse. When the canopy was missing, the Sacred Species, preserved in a pyx which had the shape of a dove, were suspended from a crook. Later they were preserved in small towers placed cither on the altar itself or on the teredos.100 From the twelfth century on niches on the wall of the 108S.R.C., May 11, 1878, ad XI (n. 3448). The organ may also lx: played on those occasions, and the custom of leaving the image of St. Joseph uncovered during Pas­ siontide may be tolerated < */».); Cacrcm. Epise., I. 12. 12. 100 Thus a council of Rheims (S67); sec Kraus, Geschtchse der chrbtl. Kunil, II, 465 f.; Armcllini, Lcziooi di Archeologia Cris:., 1895, p. 426. THE TABERNACLE 41 gospel side were in vogue and gradually became very prominent as towers or turrets with Gothic fillets and other rich decorations. The Renaissance placed the tabernacle on the altar, where it is now gen­ erally seen. There is no special place assigned to the tabernacle by the Council of Trent, which merely states that “the custom of pre­ serving the Holy Eucharist in sacrario is so old that it was known during the century of the Niccne Council” (fourth century).”0 The Council anathematizes those who maintain that the Holy Eucharist may not be preserved in the tabernacle (in sacrario), but must be distributed immediately to those present.111 The Code (Can. 1269) prescribes: “The Blessed Sacrament must be kept in an immovable tabernacle in the middle of rhe altar. The tabernacle must be skilfully constructed and safely locked, appropri­ ately decorated according to the liturgical rules, empty, and care­ fully guarded, so that there is no danger of profanation.” Con­ cerning the material of which the tabernacle is to be made, there are no rigid rules. But the more precious the metal or stone, the more becoming it will be. Inside, the tabernacle may be draped with white cloth or simply gilded. On the outside 112 it must be covered with a veil or curtain. No veil is required on the inside, though this custom may be tolerated.113 The material of the outside veil or cover may be silk, cotton, wool, hemp, etc. The color of the veil (called canopacum, because it is supposed to be thrown over the whole tabernacle) has not been determined. The S. Congregation has admitted two opin­ ions: the one which holds that the color must always be white, the other (Gavante) that it must change according to the office and sea­ sons. This latter opinion was favored by the S. Congregation,” ‘ but no strict rule can be deduced from its answer. Hence a while veil is certainly admissible. However, since at funeral masses and exequies and on All Souls’ Day, the antependium and draperies are black, the veil of the tabernacle should be purple.”5 The [ey to the taber­ nacle in which the Blessed Sacrament is kept must be carefully 110 Sc«. XIII, chap. 6. 1,1 Ibid., Can. 7. An excellent monograph is that o£ F. Raiblc, Dcr Tabernafyl einit und jetzi, Herder, >908. I12S.R.C.» Apr. 8. 1866 (n. 3150). U3S.R.G.. Aug. 7. 1871; June 5, 1889 (nn· 3254> 37c9)· ll4S.R.C., July at, 1855 3°35)· 116S.R.C., Dee. 1. 1882 (n. 3562). 42 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS guarded; the responsibility for carrying out this law rests with the priest who has charge of the church or oratory (can. 1269. § 4). Some remarks may here be added?10 The dignity of the tabernacle as house of the Most High requires that the character of a shrine should ever be conspicuous. It should, therefore, be clearly dis­ tinguished from the superstructure. Mensa and tabernacle should form a unit. Over the tabernacle there should be a canopy or baldachino covering the whole mensa, and supported by four columns or pillars?’7 The inside of rhe tabernacle should afford room for two ciboria and the monstrance (ostensorium). The door of the taber­ nacle should not be too far from the edge of the table, so that no stool is needed to reach into the tabernacle. The material of the tabernacle should be wood, of a species that docs not draw humidity. St. Charles Borromeo advises maple or linden; less commendable arc walnut and oak. However, precious stones and metal may also be used. If the inside is gold-plated or gilt, no silk cloth is required to cover it. Merc painting docs not dispense from covering the whole inside with a silk cloth?’8 One or two door^ opening in the middle may be used. Whether a door in the back of the tabernacle for sickcall purposes is admissible, has not yet been authoritatively decided?’9 The same is true of revolving tabernacles, which have been denounced as inadmissible by some authors.' 20 We could not find any official decision concerning them. Finally, before the Blessed Sacrament is placed in the tabernacle, the latter must be blessed.'-' However, it is well to observe that this blessing is required only when a new tabernacle is set on an altar already consecrated, or on a portable altar; otherwise rhe tabernacle is blessed at the end of the consecration ceremony of the altar.’22 The Tabernacle Light At least one light must burn day and night before the tabernacle 110 See Kuhn, Der Kirchenbau, pp. 81 t.; Raiblc. /. C., p. 263 if. 117 Caerem. Ep.. I. 12, n. 13 f. 118 S.R.C., Aug. 7, 1871 (n. 3254); June 5, 1889 (n. 3709)· 11V Raible, /. c., p. 268, favors it. but quotes no authority. 120 Wuest-Mullancy, Mattcrt Liturgical, cd. 1926, p. 41, n. 71; quotes no authority. 121 S.R.C., June 20» 1899, ad IV (n. 4035). 122 Raiblc, /. c., p. 269. TUE TABERNACLE LIGHT 43 in which the Blessed Sacrament is kept. For this lamp olive oil or beeswax should be used; if no olive oil is available, other oils may be used, according to the prudent judgment of the Ordinary, but they should be vegetable oils if possible. The sanctuary lamp must not serve any other purposes, for instance, illumining a dormitory?2,1 The lamp may be attached to the side wall, like a bracket or cornucopia, provided that the light burns towards and before the altar (infra ct ante altare). Olive oil best serves the mystic significance of die sanctuary lamp, as expressed in the liturgy of Palm Sunday. How­ ever, beeswax, the significance of which is pointed out on Candlemas Day, is also permitted. So, too, is a mixture of olive oil and beeswax. Vegetable oil may be used where olive oil cannot be had. Electric (or for that matter, also gas light) has not been permitted, the decision of 1916 being only a temporary provision “on account of war conditions.”121 Electric light was also forbidden for the purpose of lighting the interior of the tabernacle, or of the place in which the Blessed Sacrament is exposed, so that the pyx with the Blessed Sacra­ ment may be belter seen by the faithful.125 This ruling practically eliminates the use of electric light around the altar. However, the S. Congregation has allowed it for lighting and illumination, pro­ vided no theatrical effect be produced.120 In order to comply with these rulings the bulbs should lie placed, not on, but somewhere near the altar, so that the light falls on the missal. If we say, “not on the altar," we mean the mcnsa and tabernacle, but do not include the canopy (baldachino) above the altar, for these regulations are restric­ tive and must be interpreted in the strict sense. No doubt the reason for this conservative attitude of the S. Congregation is to be sought in the mystic character of the sublimest of mysteries. “Vere Deus absconditus." 127 §4. The Sacra Supellex By this term are understood, first and above all, the sacred ves123 Can. 1271; S.R.C., Aug. 22, 1669 (n. 2033). 12*S.R.C., Nov. 23, 1916 {A. Ap. S., VIII, 72 f.). 125S.R.C., July 28, »911 (n. 4275); concerning gas, see n. 4086. 12,1S.R.C„ June 4, 1895 (n. 3^59); “ad depellendas tenebras ccclesinsquc splendid­ ius illuminandas, . . . cauto tamen ne modus speciem praescierat theatralem." 45. 15. 44 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS seis and their appurtenances or accessories; consequently, the chalice and paten, the ciborium, and the ostensorium with the lunula. The accessories to these utensils are: the corporal, the purificator, the burse, the palla, and the chalice veil. The Code (Can. 1296 fl.) by the term “sacra supellex” includes the liturgical vestments, especially those used for the Eucharistic service, viz., amice, alb, cincture, maniple, stole, chasuble, cope, dalmatics, surplices, and altar linens. To these may be added those furnishings which are distinctively prclatial and pontifical. Chalice and Paten The Liber Pontificalis mentions two kinds of chalices, the one larger, the other smaller and easier to handle. The larger one is called scyphus. It must have been of considerable dimension. In the alleged donation made by Constantine the Great to Pope Sylvester in favor of the titulus Equitii (S. Martino de’ Monti), is mentioned a chalice which weighed to pounds.128 In larger basilicas there was more tha® one of these scyphoi, probably for the purpose of change, and for the reason that one could not contain all the wine needed for consecra­ tion. Another class is that of the calices ministeriales, of smaller size, perhaps of the capacity of our present cups or chalices. They often arc mentioned as being made of silver and in greater number than the scyphoi; in parish churches there were as many as fifteen or twenty.129 As to the shape of chalices, it appears certain that the scyphus ap­ proached the cantharus or large goblet with handles. This, of course, was less practical for administering the Holy Eucharist, but may have been used as a receptacle for holding the wine offered by the faithful and also for consecration. For the purpose of administering communion, the consecrated wine was probably poured into the calices ministeriales, which resembled a bowl supported by a slender stem upon a flat base, not unlike our present chalices. But the Roman chalice had a short base without a noticeable stein.' * 30 128 Duchesne, Uber Pontificalis, 1SS6. I, p. X70, 188. 129 Duchesne, /. c.t I, p. 144. 130 Sec Becker-Metcalf, Gallus, 1898, p. 482. THE SACRA SUPELLEX 45 The paten (patina, patena) is represented on mosaics (S. Vitale of Ravenna) and mentioned in the Liber Pontificalis. Its size, judg­ ing from the weight, must have been very large. In the biography of Pope Sylvester we read of a silver paten weighing twenty pounds.131 It sounds almost incredible, but becomes more intelligible if we re­ member that it was a great flat bowl or saucer, generally furnished with handles and destined for receiving the oblations of bread. But the weight was diminished if patens of glass were used, such as are mentioned in the Liber Pontificalis under Pope Zephyrin (198-217), although the text in question is very obscure.132 The same source also enumerates patens for chrism (patenas chrismales), one of which weighed five pounds.133 In course of time, with the change of architecture, the form and size of the chalices also changed. Therefore we speak of Gothic, Renaissance, and Barocco chalices. There is no rule as to style, so long as it has the form of a cup. But rules as to the material arc stated in the Missal.134 According to the rubrics the cuppa or bowl must be of gold or silver or may be of zinc.135136 But the interior of the cuppa must be gilded. The same holds for the paten. The size of a chalice may be proportionate to its style and ornamentation, but its height should not be less than eight inches, and the circumference of its upper lip not less than nine inches or about three inches in diameter. The foot may be round or polygonal, but it should be solid and have a cross upon it. The knob should be at least two inches from the lowest part of the cuppa, and not too richly ornamented, so that the chalice can be easily and conveniently handled. Decorations on the cup must not extend further up than one inch from the edge of the cup.130 131 Duchesne, I. c., p. 170. 13 - Duchesne, I. c., p. 139. 133 Duchesne, I. c„ p. 170. 131 Ritus servandus in celebratione Missae, tit. I, n. 1 ; De defectibus circa Missam occurrentibus, tit. X, n. 1.; Vcncroni, Z. c.. p. 193 f.; Hartmann. /. c.. p. 796. 136 This stannea is added in the Missal's rubrics, De defectibus, /. c.; but it is not to be found in the Ritus, Z. c. Copper and glass arc excluded by the rubrics (De defecti­ bus, I. c.). An answer of the S.R.C., Sept. 16, 1865, η. IV (n. 3136) reads: “An liceat episcopo consecrare calicem ex stanneo (sic!) vel aere vel aurichalco cum cuppa tamen eiusdem materiei aurata?" Resp. "Standum rubricis." Sec Hartmann, /. c., p. 796: Vcncroni, l. c.. p. 194. For interesting reproductions of chalices and patens see Dic Betende Kirehe. M.-Laach Abbey (1926). 46 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS The inner part of the paten must be gilded. Its size is proportionate to the width of the cup. The edge should be thin, but not sharp. A rounded-out paten without a rim is the most practical one. A deep or cornered rim is a nuisance and should be forbidden. Inside decora­ tions on the paten, viz., on the side of which the host is laid, are out of place. Chalice and paten must be consecrated by the competent authority, either bishops or prelates (abbots) if the latter enjoy the right. The consecration is lost, if these sacred vessels (a) arc so badly damaged or changed that their form is lost and they become unfit for their proper purpose, or (b) if they have been used for unsuitable purposes or exhibited for public sale.137 Thus if a chalice sustains a slight break or split in the cup near the bottom, the consecration is lost. Not so, however, if the break is near the upper part, so that con­ secration can take place in it without fear of spilling the contents. An indecorous use would be one like that mentioned in Daniel V, 3. Λ change in the former discipline is stated in can. 1305, § 2, which reads: “Chalice and paten do not lose their consecration by the wear­ ing away of the gilding, or by the process of rcgilding. But if the gold plate wears away, there is a grave obligation to have the vessel replated." Finally, it may be added that both chalices and patens should be kept in casings or bags, or at least in a dry place, and that the moist purificator should not be left on the chalice.138 The Ciborium The Roman Ritual prescribes that sufficient particles should be kept in a ciborium made of solid and decent material, and that it should be clean, tightly shut with a lid, and covered with a white silk veil. It should be placed in an immovable tabernacle which is securely locked with a key.139 This is about all that is expressly prescribed. One decision forbids the use of glass for ciboriums.140 Liturgists141 13T Can. 1305. i3B Hartmann, /. c„ p. 796. ’30 Titulus IV, n. 5, De Ssino. Euch. Sacr.; cd. Pustct, 1926, p. 105. i*°S.R.C., Jan. 30, 1880 (n. 3511). 141 See Vcneroni, /. c„ pp. 199t. THE SACRA SUPELLEX 47 describe it more elaborately. The ciborium must be gilded inside, have a little elevation at the bottom of the cuppa, so that the particles and fragments may be easily gathered. Its knob should be smooth, its foot solid, the lid well closing, with a cross on lop. Before use it must be blessed.142 The blessing is lost like that of a chalice.113 The Ostensorium This is a vessel for containing the Sacred Host and in solemn ex­ position is placed on the throne or carried in procession. It should be made of gold or silver, or of gilded brass or copper. Purely decorative or symbolical presentations may adorn it, but no angels in adoring attitude or statues of saints should be set on the ostensorium. The foot must be solid, the knob practically placed and smooth.’44 In the middle of the monstrance two transparent glasses, a little larger than the size of the Sacred Host, must be set. Between these two glasses the so-called lunula is placed on guides. Sometimes the lunula con­ sists of two round glasses, surrounded by a golden rim, so that the Sacred Host rests on the bottom of the golden rim and is tightly en­ closed by the two glasses. This was originally not approved by the S. Congregation.145 The answer was repeated with regard to the socalled custodia or vessel in which the Sacred- Host is placed in the tabernacle. However, the answer was modified so as to permit such lunulae and custodia, provided the glasses do not touch the Sacred Host.140 'ihe lunula must be blessed,147 though a strict obligation can hardly be proved, since the S. Congregation only stated that the rubrics should be observed. The formula is cither the one in the Pontifical or in the Ritual.148 142 The formula is either that of the Pontificale Romanum, tit. “De Boned. Taber­ naculi sive Vasculi pro SS. Euch, Conservanda» ** or that of the Rit. Rom., tit. VIII. c. 23 (cd. Fuscet, 1926, p. 339). Sec can. 1304» either bishops or religious or pastors may bless them for their own churches. 145Can. 1305, J i. 144 Caer. Epiic., Π. c. 32. n. 14; Vcneroni, /. c., p. 197. 145S.R.C.. Feb. 4, 1871, ad IV (n. 3234). ,4eS.R.C., Jan. 14. 1898 (n. 3974). 14T Dec. Anth,, n. 926, ad 5, but the rubrics make no strict provision; die one alleged in Ritus celeb. Missam» tit. II, n. 3 (in vase mundo benedicto) may be taken as prescriptive. 14HSec footnote n. 142. 48 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS Corporals, Palls, Purificaiors, Veils, and Burses 1. The corporal or palla corporalis (cloth for the body of the Lord) formerly covered the entire altar table, because intended as a container for the oblations of the faithful. These oblations and the chalice were also covered with it, as is still customary with the Carthusians. Towards the end of the Middle Ages it received its present size.’49 This now should not be less than eight or eight and one-half inches square. In the middle no cross nor embroidery nor decoration should be stitched, while on the rim there may be some lace or embroidery and in the front a small, smooth cross. It must be of hemp or linen and should be starched. The corporal must not be left spread on the altar, when not used for service, but put into the burse.150 2. The palla or stiff chalice cover developed after the twelfth century from the folded corporal. Beginning with the sixteenth cen­ tury pasteboard was used. The material prescribed now is linen or hemp, at least on that paît which comes in contact with the paten or chalice.191 The upper part may have some embroidery and figure?. In size it should not be larger than the paten. Both corporals and palls must be blessed according to the Ritual.152 3. The purificators have always served the practical purpose of cleaning the chalice and the fingers and mouth of the celebrant. They must be made of hemp or linen, no other material such as muslin or cotton being allowed for any, even the poorest, church.153 The size is not prescribed, but the advice given by some writers,154 that they should be about sixteen inches long and ten inches wide seems rea­ sonable. On the smaller end they may have laces or embroidery. No blessing is required. 4. The chalice veil is a cover spread over the chalice whilst it is carried to the altar, and remains upon the chalice from the beginning of Mass till the Offertory, and from the Communion till the celebrant Die Betende Kirche (Nf.-I.aach). p. 65. X50S.R.C., Sept. 13, 1704 (n. 2x46, 1, 2); Vcncroni, p. x8o. wiS.R.Co July 17, 1S92. ad IV (n. 3832). 162 Tit. VIII» cap. 22 (cd. Pustct» X926. p. 338); no change in xhc word “linteamen” because this is collective. S.R.C., Sept. 4, 1880» ad HI (n. 3524). *5»S.R.G, May 18. 1819 (n. 2600). i:·4 Vcneroni, /. c., p. 181, 30 centimeters; Die Betende Kirche, p. 66: 45 by 25 centimeters. LITURGICAL DRESS 49 returns to the sacristy. It dates no farther back than the sixteenth century and was prescribed by St. Charles Borromeo,155 who ordered that it should cover the chalice on every side, be made of silk cloth, and may have precious textile designs of gold and silver thread. Λ cross is in the front.1·· 5. The burse is a container for the corporal. It originated in the medieval custom of keeping the corporal in velvet or silk chests of small size, which were sometimes placed on the chalice and thus carried to the altar.157 It is generally made of silk cloth, or at least lined with silk or linen on the inside. The burse used for containing the corporal must not be used for collecting alms or taking up a col­ lection.158 Neither veil nor burse are blessed. The Code 159 determines the manner of handling sacred things as follows: Care must be taken that the chalice with the paten, as well as the purificators, palls, and corporals, after having been used in the Sacrifice of the Mass, and before being washed, arc touched only by clerics or by those in charge. Purificators, palls, and corporals which have been used in the Sacrifice of the Mass, shall not be given to lay persons, even though they be religious, to be washed by them before they have been washed by a cleric in higher orders. The water of the first washing should be poured into the waste hole, called sacrarium, or if there is no sacrarium, into the fire. It would, therefore, appear that even a Brother sacristan, or a Sister sacristan, or a lay sacristan is allowed to handle a chalice, pall, corporal or purificator. At least this seems to be the more generally accepted opinion. The ostensorium, ciborium, and custodia may be touched by laymen and oth­ ers who arc not in charge of these things. §5. Liturgical Dress"'" The origin of most of the liturgical vestments was perfectly natural and historical, they being, for the most part at least, borrowed from 155 Die Betende Kirche. p. 66. ioe Vcncroni. /. c., p. 223. 157 Die Retende Kirche. p. 67. 15*S.R.C„ May 2, 1919 (Λ. ^p. S„ XI, 246). lwCao. 1306. iflOThc chief literature: Bona. Rerum Liturgicarum, lib. I. cap. 5·» J· Braun, Die Liturgische Cewandung, Freiburg, 1907: Bock, Geschichte der iMurgischen Ge- 5° SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS the Roman dress as it was when the Church came into existence. The Christians, of course, wore the same garb as the pagans. But the Byzantine influence, especially since 382, exerted itself also on the ecclesiastical dress. Minute prescriptions were issued for the dress of the courtiers, the soldiers, and the officers. Towards the end of the sixth century we find the clerical dress, as a whole, pretty well fixed. This, however, does not imply that all insignia or dresses had been adopted by all the churches. For the sake of a clearer view of the whole domain of liturgical dresses these may be distinguished into under and upper garments, hand and footgear, and liturgical insignia, properly so-called. i. Undergarments, a) The amice {amictus,101 humerale) is a rectangular piece of cloth thrown over the neck and shoulders and tied on the breast. Its origin is explained from the drapery of the rhetorician’s mantle, or from the purple headgear of die sacrificing priest or ephod worn by Samuel and David. The use of the amice is testified to not earlier than the eighth century. The material should be linen or hemp,102 and its size about one and a half to two f^t square. The Roman Missal prescribes as follows: The amice is kissed on the place of the cross; then it is put on the head and lowered down to the neck, so that the Roman collar of the dress is covered therewith; then the strings arc drawn under the arms from the back to the breast and tied in front.103 The priest prays: “Put, O Lord, the helmet of salvation upon my head, that all the devil’s attacks may come to naught.” Thus the significance of a spiritual helmet which covers the “orans” may easily be deduced.101 It is worn whenever the alb is used, or when canons assist in the cathedral winder, ΚδΙη, 1856 if.: Duchcsnc-McClure, Christian Worship, 1923; Die Retende Kirche, 1926: Vcncroni, Manuale di Liturgia, 1926. vol. I; Ncugast, Handbuch der Liturgie, 192·}, II, 95 if., etc., etc. The form of vestments for Mass anil s. functions should be that admitted by the Church, and no new form or style may be introduced. This also was intended of the so-called Gothic vestments, which apparently arc not favored by Rome. (S.R.C., Dee. 9, 1925; Λ. Ap. S„ XVIII, 58). 101 From "amicere,” to throw or wrap around, to cover, clad; “amictus" an outer garment or cloak. ,e2S.R.C., May 15, 1819 (n. 2600); Dec. 17, 1875 (n. 3387)· 1 p. 210. 188 Cacrern. Episc. XVII, 1. 4. Vcneroni, /. c., p. 226. LITURGICAL INSIGNIA 57 The pileolus or skullcap, widely introduced in the sixteenth cen­ tury, is a small silk cap covering the top of the head. Its color is white for the pope, red for the cardinals, purple for bishops and abbots, nullius, and black for inferior prelates. The birdla100 is a stiff, four-cornered headgear with three or four ridges and a tassel. In its present form it dates back to about 1500. Its color now follows that of the skullcap. But it was only in 1888 that Leo XIII allowed the bishops “to wear now and forever the purple biretta,” so that bishops alone arc permitted to make use of the purple biretta.190 191 §6. Liturgical Insignia The wearing of insignia seems to have met with little favor at Rome in the early days, to judge from a letter of Celestine 1 (422432). The stole as well as the maniple appear much later as liturgical emblems.192 The stole took its origin from practical purposes at­ tached to the so-called orarium or sudarium, i.e„ handkerchief or napkin. The deacons, not unlike the camilli or youths who minis­ tered at the sacrifice, had to handle the offerings in kind, viz., bread and wine, and to keep the sacred vessels clean and neat. For this kind of service a towel or napkin was the proper utensil. Except in Rome, it was used in nearly all churches. But the Council of Laodicea in Phrygia (ca. 380) forbade the orarium to subdeacons and the inferior clergy. Its liturgical use became prominent at an early date, though in Rome it seems to have been unknown till the twelfth century.193 A somewhat different origin is ascribed to the stoic worn by bish­ ops and priests, although it was also originally called orarium. It was a neckcloth or scarf used to cover the wide aperture of the dal­ matic and chasuble (paenula), and thus to protect the neck. After it had taken on the form of a scarf the orarium of priests and bishops was distinguished from that of the deacons only in the mode of 190 Italian berreua, bonnet or cap; see Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. II, p. 577. 191 Brief of Feb. 3, (Theol.-praty. Quartahchrifl), 1888. p. 730. Λ quaint cus­ tom is mentioned by Fagnani; see our Commentary, Vo). II, 68. 192 DiKliesne McClure. /. r.. p. 390. 193 Duchesnc-McClure, /. c., p. 390 fT. 58 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS wearing it: the former wearing it around rhe neck down to the breast, while on deacons it hung from the left shoulder. Presbyters generally wore the stole in the same manner as bishops. The maniple appears to have developed either from the orariam, when worn on the arm, or from the mappula, a handkerchief or napkin folded around the hands for receiving some object. It was when the deacons were relieved of some of their work by the sub­ deacons that the maniple became a distinguishing emblem of the latter. In Rome this occurred toward the twelfth century. The material and color of both stole and maniple correspond to that of the chasuble. Three crosses must be stitched or woven on both—one on top, the others on each end. But the larger stole, which is worn instead of the planeta plicata by the deacon, has no crosses.1”4 As to the use of the stole the Ritual gives sufficient instructions. It is used when the Sacraments arc administered or an office is performed which requires the use of the stole; for preaching it is required only where the local custom favors it?95 The stole, being a sign of office, not of jurisdiction, is to be worn by the one who performs the of­ fice, whether pastor or curate or a substitute? 9U With regard to reg­ ulars (not religious in general), it has been decided that they need not wear cither surplice or stole in the confessional?97 The deacon always wears the stole when handling the Holy Eucharist, except in the cases mentioned in the Ceremonial of Bishops?5*8 Mode of wearing the stole, (a) The deacon, after having kissed the top cross of the stole, throws it from the left shoulder across the front and back and ties it under the right arm. (b) The priest crosses it on the breast and confines it to the waist by the cincture, when wearing the alb, but when he is wearing the surplice only, the stole hangs down on the breast, (c) The bishop always wears it as the priest does when wearing the surplice. The symbolical significance of the stole is rather loosely connected *®«S.R.C., Sept. 25, 1852, ad VII (n. 3006). i»»S.R.C., Sept. 26. 1868 (n. 3185). lt>eS.R.C., July 21, 1855, nd II (n. 3035). 1®»S.C. Epp. « Regg., Nov. 8, 1588 (Reg. I’.. II, fol. 337). The bishops arc not entitled to force them to do so. Caereτη. Ερ., II. 23, nn. 12 and 20: S.R.C., June 9, 1899 (n. 4030), ί when the deacon takes down and hands the Bl. Sacrament to die bishop. LITURGICAL INSIGNIA 59 with the prayer that is said when the stole is put on for Mass. It ex­ presses the hope of immortality and spiritual joy. The maniple is exclusively worn at Mass by the celebrant as well as by the deacon and subdeacon of the Mass (not by the deacons of honor). Its mystic meaning has a pertinent relation to the ministry: “May I, O Lord, wear the maniple of weeping and sorrow, in order to receive with joy the reward of labor.” Besides the vestments so far mentioned, there are certain insignia exclusively permitted to bishops and those who have obtained a special privilege. They are the pallium, the ring, the crozicr, the pec­ toral and the archiépiscopal cross. Among the insignia proper to a metropolitan the Code mentions the pallium. Ils origin is involved in obscurity. It seems to be an imi­ tation of the band of wool worn at Mass by Oriental bishops. This ornament was in vogue also in Gaul and Africa. zXs a special sign of distinction the pallium came into general use after the sixth cen­ tury. In its modern form it is a circular band, about two inches wide, worn about the neck, breast, and shoulders, and having two pendants, one hanging down in front, the other behind. Il is set with six black crosses of silk, one each on the breast and back, one on each shoulder, and one on each pendant. It is worn over the chasuble and signifies the plenitude of pastoral and episcopal power which an archbishop has received from the Pope. The pallia are kepi in a capula over the tomb of St. Peter, and hence arc said to be “taken from the body of Si. Peler,” after being blessed by the Pontiff on the eve of the feast of SS. Pcier and Paul. Λ metropolitan is obliged to ask die Pope for the pallium within three months from the date of his consecration, or, if he is already consecrated, from the rime of his canonical promotion in con­ sistory. Certain acts of metropolitan jurisdiction or of episcopal order which require the use of the pallium according to the liturgical laws, arc illicit if performed before the imposition of the pallium. These acts are the following: consecration of bishops, convocation of a coun­ cil, blessing of chrism, dedication of churches, ordination of clerics. Even if he should have had the use of the pallium in another diocese, he must get a new one if he is transferred.109 The days on which 199 Pontificale Rom. De Pallio (cd. Pustet. 1888. p. 93) L; can. 275 fl. 6o SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS he may use the pallium are: Christmas, St. Stephen’s, St. John’s, New Year's Day, Epiphany, Palm Sunday, Holy Thursday, Holy Saturday, Easter Sunday, Low Sunday, Ascension, Pentecost, Corpus Christi, feasts of the Purification, Annunciation, Assumption, Nativ­ ity, and Immaculate Conception of the Bl. Virgin Mary, Nativity of St. John, St. Joseph’s (19 March), All Saints, dedications of churches, festivities in his own church, ordination of clerics, conse­ cration of bishops, abbots, and virgins, anniversary day of the dedi­ cation of the cathedral and of his own consecration.200 The metropolitan may use the pallium in every church of his province on the days determined in the Pontificale Romanum or on others specially granted to him; but he may not use it outside his province, even though the local Ordinary consents. If a metropoli­ tan loses his pallium, or is transferred to a different archiépiscopal sec, he must obtain another. The pallium cannot be lent, given away, or left to anyone after death, but all pallia received by a metropolitan must be buried with him. Archbishops who arc metro­ politans, or who hold that title, must demand the pallium “instanter, instantius, instantissime.” The reason for this urgent postulation lies in the significance of the pallium as indicative of the plenitude of the archiépiscopal jurisdiction. The ring is mentioned as an official sign of bishops by a council of Toledo in 633. After the year 1000 bishops wore it generally. The ring of the pope, called Fisherman’s Ring, represents Peter casting his net. The significance of the episcopal ring is similar to that of the wedding ring, viz., it is a symbol of loyalty to his spouse, the Church. The bishop wears the ring ordinarily and at all ecclesiastical functions. So also do governing abbots. Protonotaries apostolic are allowed to wear the ring at Mass only when they pontificate.201 The crazier is a staff now made of metal and consisting of three movable pieces. Its height is that of a man. The uppermost part is rounded out, snail or serpentlike. Its use is testified to since 633. But at first it was a straight staff, pedum, resembling a sceptre. In the eleventh century it turned into a crook, first semi-circular, then -00 Pontificale Rom., De Pallio, cd. cit., p. 94 L; Our Commentary, 11, 292 fl. 201 Die Betende Kirche, pp. 102 f.; Vcncroni, I. e., p. 227; S.R.C., May 23, 1846, ad V (n. 2907). The ring allowed co doctors; ha$ no liturgical significance» since these have no right co wear it at liturgical functions (can. 1378). LITURGICAL INSIGNIA 61 fully rounded, like a snail. Some of the crozicrs of more ancient times show a small band hanging from the top. The meaning of this paniselltts is supposed to be that of limited jurisdiction, but its real purpose was to protect the staff against the sweat of the hands.202 The crozier is used at all pontifical functions except on Good Fri­ day and at Requiem Masses.202 It symbolizes the pastoral or govern­ ing office of prelates. The crook or upper round part is turned toward the people only in rhe bishop’s or abbot’s own domain. The pope uses no crozier. The pectoral cross (pectorale) is an ornament made of precious metal and containing relics of Saints, especially of the Holy Cross. It is first mentioned by Innocent III (1198-1216). At pontifical func­ tions it is worn directly over the alb. Concerning the relics of the Holy Cross, the Code 204 says: “Relics of the true Cross which may be enclosed in the pectoral cross of a bishop, after his death belong to his cathedral church, which shall hand them to the bishop’s suc­ cessor. If the deceased bishop ruled several dioceses, the relics pass to the cathedral church of the one in which he died; if he dies out­ side the diocese, the relics belong to the cathedral church of the diocese in which he passed away.” Its meaning is expressed in the prayer recited when the celebrant puts it on, viz., to remind him of the sufferings of the martyrs and to protect him through the sign of the Cross from the snares of the enemy. Among the insignia of popes, patriarchs, primates and archbishops must be mentioned the cross carried before them. It has a double crossbeam, and the figure of the crucifix is turned toward the prel­ ate before whose eyes it is carried. Formerly it was the exclusive privilege of papal legates, but under Gregory IX (1227-1241) all archbishops were granted this distinction. Metropolitans may have the cross carried before them in the whole ecclesiastical province, also in exempt churches.205 To sum up the liturgical dress worn by the various ranks of the clergy: 206 The inferior clergy, viz., from tonsure to subdeaconship 202 Die Betende Kirche, p. 103. 203 Caeremor.iale Epitc., 1. I, cap. 16, nn. 5-9. 204 Can. 1288. 205 can. 274, n. 6. 206 Die Betende Kirche, pp. 105 f. 62 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS exclusively, wear surplice and biretta. Subdeacons wear amice, alb, cincture, maniple, tunic (dalmatic) and biretta. Deacons, besides the vestments just mentioned, wear stole and dalmatic. Priests, when saying Mass, wear amice, alb, cincture, maniple, stole, chasuble, and biretta; outside of Mass: surplice, stole, cope, and biretta. Bishops (and abbots), when pontificating, put on, besides the priestly gar­ ments, rochet, special stockings and slippers, pectoral cross over the alb, tunic and dalmatic (of silk) under the chasuble, gloves and ring, skullcap 207 and mitre. They also carry the crozier. Outside and be­ fore pontifical functions they wear the rochet, mozzetta, pectoral, ring, skullcap, and biretta, frequently also the cappa magna. Arch­ bishops or metropolitans have the right to wear the pallium and to have the cross carried before them, besides the episcopal dress. The pope wears the fano, subcinctoriuin and tiara, as distinctively papal · insignia. The fano is an amice made of two pieces of doth with red and golden stripes worn over the alb. The subcinctorium serves as maniple and is worn on the left side, but is a mere ornament. § 7. Liturgical Colors of Vestments The general rubrics of the Missal, as officially published by Pius V, prescribe that the color of the vestments of the altar, celebrant, and ministers be conformed to the Office and Mass of the day. Ac­ cording to the usage of the Roman Missal, five liturgical colors are permitted, viz.: white, red, green, purple, and black.208 There is also another color admitted, viz., pink (rosaceus).™ Λ gold textured (woven) vestment may be tolerated with white, green, and red, but not purple.210 A vestment of silver texture may pass for a white one.211 Symbolism as well as the trade with the Orient influenced the choice of these liturgical colors. White, being expressive of light, purity, and joy, is employed for the feasts of the Lord, except those referring to His Passion, for the feasts of the Blessed Virgin, con207 We could find no decision that would make the wearing of the skullcap obliga­ tory and at pontifical functions it often proves a nuisance. * Rttb. Gen.. XVJII, 1. -<· ™Caer. EpifC., 1. 11, c. Χ1Π. n. 11. ««S.R.C., April 28. 1866; Dec. 5, 1868, ad IV (nn. 3145, 3191): "paramenta ex auro contexta." * 1 S.R.C., Nov. 20, 1885» ad 111 (n. 3646). 2 LITURGICzXL AND CHURCH FURNITURE 63 fessors and virgins, /XII Saints, of Corpus Christi, processions (ex­ cept those held on Rogation Days) and benedictions. Red, the sym­ bol of fire and blood, indicates charity, and is, therefore, used on the feasts of Pentecost, of Apostles and martyrs, and on the Passion feasts of our Lord. Green, said to be an intermediary color, is also the color of the sprouting seed, and, therefore, expressive of hope. It is used on Sundays and ferial days after Epiphany until Septuage­ sima, from the third Sunday after Pentecost until Advent, unless a vigil falls within that time. Purple, as a secondary color, is a sub­ stitute for black, and expresses humility or sorrow and penance. It, therefore, suits the season of penance and fast, and is made use of from Septuagesima till Easter, during Advent, on all days of fast, vigils, and Rogation Days, lilacl^ is a symbol of darkness and grief. It is used on Good Friday and at Requiem Masses.212 § 8. Other Liturgical and Church Furniture The General Rubrics, as already mentioned, demand a little bell (campanula).213 This differs from the one placed at the exit of the sacristy to the altar, which is not prescribed by the rubrics. But the other is prescribed. It was asked from a Mexican diocese whether, instead of the tintinnabulum, a cymbal or basin-like instrument ap­ pended on a shaft could be used, and the S. Congregation of Rites answered negatively.214215 *217 Whether this answer would forbid gongs appears doubtful.210 But sounding boards—which most of the time cannot be heard—are no proper substitute for a little bell.218 This little bell is rung at the “Sanctus,” Elevation, and customarily also at the “Domine non sum dignus”; even in private chapels when there is only the celebrant and server.21 T The S. Congregation has further decided that the bell should not be rung, if Mass is said on an altar placed in the sight of those who are in choir. At all private 212 See Rub. Gen., i. c. per totum; Die Betende Kirche, p. 85 f. For the rest, ever)· 'Ordo” states the color to be used, 1 ; Epiphany, Ascension, Pentecost vigils, white or red. 213 Tit. XX. 2US.R.C., Sept. 10, 1898, ad 111 (n. 4000). 215 Thus Wust-Mullany, /. c., n. 127. 210 Such fanciful contrivances arc only intended to “modernize” the natural sound of bells. 217 S.R.C., July 18, 1885, ad HI (n. 3638). 64 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS Masses which arc celebrated tempore piae supplicationis,2,8 the use of the bell is entirely forbidden. If it should be'rung by mistake, all those who march by the altar, genuflect on one knee, two by two, if the Elevation is just in process, and continue the procession.210 It is also forbidden to ring the bell during the exposition of the Blessed Sacrament, no matter whether Mass is said on the exposition altar or on another one.220 Censers are mentioned in the Liber Pontificalis as thymiateria, one of which, made of pure gold and adorned on all sides with gems to the number of sixty, weighing 15 pounds, Constantine is said to have donated to St. Peter’s.221 But this censer, like most of the early period, was doubtless a stationary one. Its form was most probably that of a pan like those found in the pagan temples. However, there were also other forms, viz., saucers hung on chains which were in-· tended for swinging; we sec a deacon swinging such a censer on the mosaic of St. Vitale. Even our present form consisting of two halves, generally semicircular, with a base on the lower and an ornamented top on the upper, is found in the treasury of Luksor.222 Incense was used in the Old Testament in rhe temple service as well as in processions, especially funeral processions. How early in­ cense was introduced into the Catholic Church is mere guesswork. Aside from the above-mentioned text of the Liber Pontificalis under Sylvester I, we have Hippolytus of Porto testifying to the use of in­ cense in his book De Consummatione Mundi: “Lugebant etiam ecclesiae luctum magnum, quia nec oblatio nec suffitus fiat.” St. Am­ brose mentions the custom of incensing the altar.223 The incense is generally preserved in a boat, concerning the mate­ rial and form of which there arc neither rubrics nor decisions. The use of Holy Water is undeniably ancient in the Church, since a formula for blessing it occurs in the Apostolic Constitutions and 2,8 This seems, from the context, to mean procession. 219S.R.C., Nov. 21, 1893 (n. 3814). 22I>S.R.C.( Aug. 31, 1867, ad X; May 11, 1878. ad Π (nn. 3157, 3448). Some, e. g., Vencroni, I. c., p. 237, Wüst-Mullancy, I. c.. p. 61, have extended this prohi­ bition to any recitation in choir and to the absolution ad tumbas, but we failed to sec any authentic decision besides those stateri above. 22 » Duchesne, I. c., I, p. 177. 222 Kaufmann, Handbuch der chritll. drchaologie, 1905, p. 567. 222 Armeilini, Lezioni di JrcJieologia Cri/tiana, 1898, p. 428. LITURGICAL AND CHURCH FURNITURE 65 is attributed to St. Matthias.-’-4 The aqua lustralis was known to Jews and pagans, and in the ancient basilicas was a basin {cantharus) either in the atrium or near the narthex, The symbolism of purity is plain, and the reference to the baptismal water no less so. From the practice of having a basin at the entrance of the church sprang the custom of putting one or two fonts in the vestibule or in the rear of the church itself. For domestic or private use it was customary to bless water in private houses. In the ninth century water was blessed every Sunday and sprinkled over the people.224 225226 It is pre­ scribed that the Holy Water must be renewed every week.220 The pulpit grew out of the chair from which the bishop an­ nounced the word of God, and from the so-called·ambo. This latter was located in the main aisle and ascended by a flight of steps, whence the name. Sometimes there were two ambos, one for the gospel and the other for the lesson. Their position was not fixed. Their shape was either round or octagonal. Now the pulpit is gen­ erally placed on the gospel side, because the celebrant, when sitting on the epistle side, is supposed to see the preacher. However, sev­ eral decisions permit the pulpit to be on the epistle side, for greater convenience.227 A crucifix should adorn the pulpit, which may, for festive occasions, also be decorated with tapestry. But all drapery must be removed on Good Friday and when Passion sermons are preached.228 Seats arc intended either for the sacred ministers or for the people. The more ancient churches show main and side aisles without chairs or pews. But the sanctuary, for instance at St. Lorenzo fuori le mura, had marble scats running up to the episcopal chair. Nowadays the celebrant with deacon and subdeacon sits on a bench or chairs. The bench is an oblong seat covered with a cloth and placed on the epistle side.229 The S. Congregation and the liturgists demand that neither bench nor chairs should have arms or backs, or be upholstered or 224 Armellini, /. c„ p. 433. 225 Die Betende Kirche, p. 75· 226 Caeremoniale Epitc., 1. 1, C. 5. 227 S.R.C., Feb. 13, 1666 (n. »330); Vencroni, I. c., p. 240. 228 Caerem. Epitc., 1. 1. c. 13. n. 18; I. II, c. 11, n. 10; S.R.C., June 14, 1845, ad 111 (n. 2891); alio on Holy Thursday evening. 229 Caerem. Episc., 1. I, c. 12. n. 22; Can. 1263, § 1. 66 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS provided with a cushion?'30 This is a somewhat rigid rule, especially in case the ministers have to listen to a long sermon or prolonged musical display, and might be dispensed with. Before or under the bench may be a platform. Concerning the scats for the faithful, the Code (can. 1262 f.) states: Conformable to ancient discipline, it is desirable that the women should be separated from the men in church. A distinguished place or scat in the church may be reserved for the civil magistrates ac­ cording to their dignity and rank. However, the liturgical laws must never be disregarded. These laws arc summed up in the Caeremoniale Episcoporum? ' * where wc read that the scats reserved for the nobility and illustrious laymen, magistrates and princes should be placed outside the sanctuary or presbytery. Princes, magistrates, etc., may have a predella or kneeling bench and a special seat covered with tapestry or upholstered, but always outside the choir or sanctu­ ary, and no canopy is allowed.232 If the magistrates wish to have a seat or kneeling bench in the choir, they must obtain a special papal induit.233 No Catholic may, without the express consent of the dio­ cesan Ordinary, have a scat reserved for himself and family in church, and the Ordinary shall not give his consent unless he is certain that the rest of the faithful can be conveniently seated. This, of course, docs not mean that the renting of pews is forbidden. All these con­ cessions contain the tacit condition that the Ordinary may revoke them for a just cause and that no prescription confers a permanent right. For laymen, even by paying pew-rent for a number of years, acquire no personal right to pews or scats.234 The organ, known in the Orient in early times, was introduced to the West through a gift made to Charlemagne. But it remained for centuries an imperfect instrument, until in the fifteenth century it obtained the shape it now has, with manuals, registers, pipes, and pedals. The insertion of pneumatics and electricity gave the organ greater volume and elasticity.235 ■-’OS.R.C.. June 16, 1893, ad XI (n. 3804); Vcncroni, I. c., p. 238; Hartmann, /· c., p. 795· 231 lab. I, c. 13» n. <3. -8-S.R.C., May 23, 1639; Dec. 15, 1640 (nn. 680, 726). a»3 S.R.C., July 8 and 18, 1654 (n. 959 f·)· 23*S.R.C., Nov. 22, 1642 (n. 816); Can. 1263, §5 2, 3. 2,5 Dic Betende Kirc/ie. p. 76. LITURGICAL AND CHURCH FURNITURE 67 The Church adopted this instrument not by law but by custom. For there is no law that the organ must be played in church at any time. But there arc quite a few rules which regulate its use. These may be briefly summarized as follows: 1. The use of the organ is forbidden: (a) During Advent and Lent, at Mass and Vespers when the office is “de tempore,” except on “Gaudete” and "Laetare” 236 Sundays, (b) During Holy Week, ex­ cept on Holy Thursday up to the intonation of the “Gloria” and no farther, during the “Tenebrae,” “Lamentations,” and “Miserere” no organ is to be played.237 (c) At all purple Masses, except those for which the use of the dalmatic and tunicella is allowed.288 (d) The organ must be silent while the celebrant sings the Preface and “Pater Noster.” 288 2. The organ may be played on all other occasions not excepted in the preceding numbers (a-d). In particular, it may be played: (a) on all other Sundays, the three pre-Lenten Sundays not excepted, (b) On all feast-days throughout the year, no matter whether they fall within Advent or Lent or on any day of the year when the rubrics allow the celebration of a feast.240 The organ may be played from the moment the celebrant leaves the sacristy till the chant of the In­ troit begins; when the celebrant is occupied at the altar and there is nothing to be sung by the choir; from the “Ite Missa est” and after the “Deo Gratias" 241 is sung until the celebrant has returned to the sacristy.242 It may also be played at the First Communion of children, even though this takes place during Lent and at the devotion in honor of St. Joseph during the month of March.243 (c) The use of the organ is allowed at Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament throughout the year. It may be played from the time of the vesting of the min­ isters until their return to the sacristy. But during the act of blessing, as during the elevation, the tone should be grave and somewhat 23rt Caerem. Episc.. 1.1, c. 28. n. 1 f.; S.R.C., Sept. 11, 1847» ad 1 (n. 2959). 2*7S.R.C., June 16, 1893; ad II (n. 3804): June 11, 1880, ad IV (n. 3515); Dee. 30, 1881. ad VII (n. 3535)· 23*S.R.C., Sept. 2, 174t. ad IV (n. 2365). 239 Caerem. Episc., I. I, c. 28, n. 9.; S.R.C., Jan. 27, 1899 (n. 4009)· 249 Caerem. Episc. I. c. 241 The odd custom of supplying the “Deo Gratias” by the organ is forbidden by the S.R.C., Feb. 15. 1907, ad II; Veneroni. I. c., p. 243. 242 Ecd. Ret’., Vol. 30, p. 304. 243 S.R.C., May if, 1878, ad XI (n. 3448). 68 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS subdued.24-1 (d) Vespers, except those for the dead, may be accom­ panied on Sundays, feastdays, and other days except ferial days which have a purple color. At the “Pater Noster” the organ should be silent.245 (e) The organ may be played when the bishop enters the church for an ecclesiastical function, except on days and during seasons forbidden as above, and during functions for the dead.240 It may be added that whenever the use of the organ is forbidden the harmonium and piano arc also prohibited, for instance, at the “Tenebrae” and Passion.217 Il may justly be inferred that gram­ ophones and other modern musical contrivances (radio) are equally forbidden. Here seems to be the proper place to insert briefly the laws con­ cerning §9. Church Music The Code rules: 248 All kinds of lascivious or impure music, whether accompanied by the organ or other instruments, or rendered vocally, must be entirely eliminated from the churches; and the litur­ gical laws concerning sacred music must be observed. Religious women, if their constitutions or the liturgical laws and the local Ordinary permit them to do so, may sing in their own church or public oratory, but only in a place where they cannot be seen by the public. Pope Pius X of happy memory expressed his will and the law in his well-known Motu proprio 240 of Nov. 22, 1903. It contains general principles and specific rules pertinent to church music. 1. It requires that the music be holy and true art, blending into the universal character of the Church itself. 2. Gregorian or Plain Chant possesses these qualities in the high­ est degree. The classic polyphony, especially that introduced by Pierluigi da Palestrina, also possesses these qualities in a prominent degree. 244 Caerem. Ephe., I. c., n. 9. 245 Vcneroni, /. c„ p. 244. 24β îbtd., p. 242. 247 S.R.C., July 7, 1899, ad I (η. 4044). 24*Can. 1264. 24ί· The Italian and Latin texts in Decreta Auth. S.R.C., n. 4121; an English trans­ lation in Eccl. Review, Vol. 30, pp. π3 tf. CHURCH MUSIC 69 3. The liturgical text is emphasized as follows: “The language proper to the Church is Latin. Hence it is forbidden to sing anything whatever in the vernacular at solemn liturgical functions—much more to sing in the vernacular the variable or common parts of the Mass and Office. As the texts that may be rendered in music, and the order in which they may be rendered, are determined for every liturgical function, it is not lawful to confuse this order or to change the prescribed texts for others selected at will, or to omit them either entirely or in part, except when the rubrics allow that some versiclcs of the text be supplied with the organ, while these versicles are simply recited in choir. It is permissible, however, according to the custom of the Roman Church, to sing a motett to the Blessed Sacrament after the Benedictus in a solemn Mass. It is also permitted, after the Of­ fertory prescribed for the Mass has been sung, to execute, during the lime that remains a brief motett to words approved by the Church. The liturgical text must be sung as it is in the books, without altera­ tion or inversion of the words, without undue repetition, without breaking syllables, and always in a manner intelligible to the faithful who listen.” 4. With regard to the organ and other instruments the decree says: “As the chant should always have the principal place, the organ or in­ struments should merely sustain and never oppress it. It is not per­ mitted to have the chant preceded by long preludes or to interrupt it with intermezzo pieces. The employment of the piano is forbid­ den in church, as is also that of loud-sounding or lighter instruments, such as drums, cymbals, bells, and the like.250 It is strictly forbidden to have bands play in church, and only in special cases and with the consent of the Ordinary will it be permissible to admit a number of wind instruments, limited, well selected, and proportioned to the size of the place—provided the composition and the accompaniment arc in a grave and suitable style, and similar in all respects to that proper to the organ. In processions outside the church the Ordinary may give permission for a band, provided no profane pieces are played. It would be desirable in such cases that the band confine it­ self to accompanying some spiritual canticle sung in Latin or in the 250 Λ moderate use of oboes and clarinettes is allowed, provided the permission of die Ordinary be obtained. S.R.C.» Nov. 13» 1908 {A. Ap. S., I, 251 f.). 7o SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS vernacular by the singers and the pious associations which take part in the procession.” 5. The length of the liturgical chant is thus described: “It is not lawful to keep the priest at the altar waiting on account of the chant or the music for a length of time not allowed by the liturgy'. Ac­ cording to the ecclesiastical prescriptions the Sanctus of the Mass should be over before the Elevation, although the priest, too, should have regard for the singers. The Gloria and Credo ought, accord­ ing to the Gregorian tradition, to be relatively short. In general it must be considered a grave abuse when the liturgy in ecclesiastical functions is made to appear secondary to, and in a manner at the service of, the music, for the music is merely a part of the liturgy and should be its humble handmaid.” 6. Finally, the Pope calls upon the bishops to institute commis­ sions for Church Music, admonishes all ecclesiastical schools and per­ sons concerned to promote these prudent reforms, and expresses the wish that, at least in the principal churches, the ancient Scholae Cantorum be restored. This “Motu proprio” of Pius X has not been superseded by the Code, for canon 2 plainly states that liturgical laws are not touched by the Code, unless expressly corrected by it. Church music is part of the liturgy, although we should beware of stressing the Tridentine canons to such an extent that a breach of these rules would be con­ sidered a sin against the faith. For the canon quoted in favor of cer­ tain musical regulations 251 has absolutely nothing to do with church music, but with the administration of the Sacraments in general. § 10. Various Tones and Voices St. Pius V commanded, in virtue of holy obedience, that whcrcever the Roman Missal is obligatory, Mass should be sung or said in accordance with the rite, manner, and norm prescribed in the Missal itself.252 Here the tonus and vox arc insinuated. I. As to the tonus or lone, the Ceremonial of Bishops 253 dis251 The New Regulation for the Diocese of Oregon City, Ore.» in The Catholic Choir Master, Vol. IX, n. i, p. 8 wrongly quotes Sess. XXII» Can. 9. It is Sess. VII» Can. 13. '·ζ)ηο primum,9* July 14, 1570, in the Preface of (he Roman Missal. 253 Caer. Ep., I. I, cap. 27. * CHURCH MUSIC 71 tinguishes two kinds, viz., festive and ferial. The festive tone consists in two variations or inflections of the voice, when prayers are said. The ferial tone is the straight one, without any inflection whatever. The festive tone is used on all Sundays and feastdays from the semi­ double (inclusively) upwards, while the ferial tone is employed for feasts lower than semi-double and for Requiem Masses.254 The Missal contains two sets of prefaces, viz., the festive and ferial, and the rule just stated also applies to these. The latest edition of the Roman Missal 255 contains four different Glorias, six different Ite Missa est, four different Benedicamus, one Requiescant, and one Credo. The Kyrialc contains fifteen Glorias, and sixteen, respectively, eighteen Ite Missa est and Benedicamus. These latter cannot be styled obligatory, whilst those contained in the Missal ought to be observed pro nasse et posse. The prayers that precede High Mass, e. g., at the Asperges, arc sung straight forward as far as the last word of the prayer; there the last syllable (two syllables in dactylic words) drops to the minor third; the same is done in the conclusion of the oration. II. With regard to the triple voice, triplex vox, these rules may be stated. “Three tones of voice are used in Low Mass. All that, at High Mass, would be sung by the celebrant, at Low Mass is said ALOUD, so as to be heard distinctly by all who assist (but not so loud as to disturb other celebrants). All that at High Mass would be said secretly, is said at Low Mass SILENTLY, that is, articulated in a whisper, so as not to be heard by bystanders; but the priest should hear himself. There is a third, medium, voice, namely AUDIBLE BUT LOWER than the voice used where at High Mass he would sing. It occurs four times only: at the words “Orate fratres”; during the whole “Sanctus” and “Benedictus,” at the words “Nobis quoque peccatoribus” and at the words “Domine non sum dignus.” 2ββ III. The rules for the Chant of the Mass arc given in the Vatican 281 Sec Huegle, O.S.B., Catechism 0/ Gregorian Chant, 1928, p. 123. For further musical nuances, which apparently undergo changes from time to time, we refer the reader to musical authorities. 255 Ed. Pustet. 1929. 256 Fortescue. The Ceremonies of the Roman Rite Described, p. 45. It is natural and charitable to subdue the “loud" voice when several priests say Nfasx at the same time, especially at altars which arc close together. 72 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS Edition of the Graduate.237 Pope Pius XI settled the question con­ cerning the “Benedictus,” as here inserted under η. VII. These rules are: 1. When the priest goes towards the altar, the precentors begin the Introit. On Ferias and Simples the intonation is to be sung by one precentor as far as the sign * ; on other feasts and on Sundays, there should be two precentors; but on solemn feasts there should be four, if so many arc available. The choir continues until the Psalm. The first part of the Verse of the Psalm as far as the asterisk, and the “Gloria Patri” are sung by the precentors, the full choir taking up the rest of the verse. Afterwards the Introit as far as the Psalm is repeated by the full choir.·08 2. When the Antiphon is over, the choir sings the “Kyrie eleison” and the “Christe eleison” and again the “Kyrie eleison” thrice, alternately with the precentors or with the other half of the choir. The last “Kyrie eleison” is divided into two or three parts, marked by a single or double asterisk. If there be only two parts, and hence only a single asterisk, the first part is sung by the precentor or by the first half of the choir, the second part by the full choir. If there are three parts, and the first is marked by the simple, and rhe second by a double asterisk, the first part is sung by the same side as in the former ease; but the second part, which repeats the melody of the first part, is sung by the other half of the choir; and the third part is finally chanted by both sides together. Sometimes there are as many as five parts: in that the manner of dividing the alternations in the chant is marked by the single or double dividing sign being several times inserted, and what has been said above sufficiently explains the execution. 3. The priest alone in a dear voice gives the intonation of the “Gloria in excelsis Deo,” whereupon the choir continues: “Et in terra pax hominibus,” etc. The “Gloria” is divided into two parts, which answer each other in the chant, or else the full choir sings in alternation with the precentors. Then follows the response of the choir at the “Dominus vobiscum.” 257 Vatican Graduate» cd. 1922. 2*sSec Huegle» Catechism» p. 61» 144 fl. CHURCH MUSIC 73 4. After the Epistle or Lesson 259 one or two precentors give the intonation of the Responsory, which is called the Gradual, as far as the sign *, and all, or at any rate the chosen precentors, conclude the chant with due care. Two sing the Verse of the Gradual, and, after the final asterisk, the full choir finishes it; or else, if it is preferred and according to the responsorial rite, after the Verse said by the precen­ tors or the precentor, the full choir repeats the first part of the Responsory as far as the Verse. If “Alleluia, Alleluia” is to be said with the Verse, the first “Alleluia” is sung by one or two voices as far as the asterisk *, and then the choir repeats the “Alleluia,” con­ tinuing with the ncum or jubilus, which prolongs the syllabic “a.” The precentors next sing the Verse, which is finished by the full choir, as before, beginning after the asterisk. When the Verse is fin­ ished, the precentor or precentors repeat the “Alleluia,” and the full choir only sings the closing ncum. After Septuagesima, the “Alleluia” and following Verse arc left out, and the Tract is sung, its Versicles being chanted alternately by the two sides of the choir answering each other, or else by the pre­ centors and the full choir. In Paschal Time, the Gradual is omitted and in its place the “Alleluia, Alleluia” is sung with its Verse as above. Then one “Alleluia” immediately follows, which must be begun by one or two cantors until the ncum is reached, when it is not repeated, but finished by the full choir. The Verse and one “Al­ leluia” arc sung at the end in the manner above described. The Sequences are sung alternately, either by the precentors and the choir, or by the alternate sides of the choir. 5. When the Gospel 260 is finished, the priest gives the intonation of the “Credo,” if it is to be said, the choir continuing with the “Patrem omnipotentem" and the rest, according to custom, cither sung in full choir or alternately. 6. The Offertory is begun by one, or two, or four precentors, in the same way as the Introit, and is finished by the full choir. 7. When the Preface is finished, the choir goes on with the “Sanctus,” etc., as far as “Benedictus qui venit,” exclusively; this be25» On bow to sing the lections sec Hucgle, I. c., p. toj; the epistle, 2«o On how die Gospel is to be sung, sec Hucgle, I. c., pp. not. I. c., p. 110. 74 SACRED THINGS AND SEASONS ing finished—and not before—-the Elevation of the Bl. Sacrament takes place. The choir is silent and adores with the rest of the faithful. After the Elevation of the Sacred Host the choir sings the Benedictus. 8. After the Response at the “Pax Domini,” the “Agnus Dei” is sung thrice, either by the full choir, the intonation being given by one, two, or four precentors each time, or alternately, but in such a way as to have the “Dona nobis pacem,” or the words “sempiternam” in the Mass for the Dead sung by the full choir. After the Communio, the full choir sings the Antiphon which is thus named, the intonation being sung by one, two, or four pre­ centors, as in the case of the Introit. 9. The priest or deacon says the “ Ite Missa est” or the “Benedicamus Domino,” and the choir answers with “Deo gratias” in the same tone. In the Mass of the Dead, the choir answers “Amen” to the “Requiescant in pace.” 261 At the doxology or conclusion of a hymn, a bow or inclination is required. However, according to our judgment—shared by others— it looks and sounds very awkward for a choir to sing a long con­ clusion with heads bowed. It is not even healthy or without bodily strain. Performers of secular songs naturally avoid such a pose. zX moderate bow, or the omission thereof, we believe, would not do violence to the beauty of the musical rendering. When there is no doxology and no holy name is uttered, no bow is required. Thus we hardly think that the conclusion of the “Jesu nostra redemptio" (as it is in the Monastic Breviary) demands a bow. 261 Concerning these the directions arc given in the Missal. Chapter II HOLY SEASONS1 The early Christians observed some Jewish customs with regard to the celebration of feasts and fasts, bui modified the manner or time of celebration. This was dictated by the changed nature of the sacrifice. It was customary for the first Christians to meet in the Temple for prayer, and to assemble for the “breaking of the bread'’ in private houses.2 They also observed certain feasts dear to the Jewish brethren. Among them the Passover or Easier, and Whit­ sun or Pentecost. The Easter Day, as devoted to the Resurrection, was the first feast celebrated by the Christian communities. It was the Lord’s Day par excellence, which was changed from the Sabbath to the Sunday,3 the dies solis mentioned by Pliny.4 Easter, the celebration of which caused no little stir, became the center of a cycle of liturgical celebrations. It had its preparatory period and one that followed, until a week after Pentecost. Whitsun with its octave formed the end of Eastertide. Ten days before (Quadrage­ sima post Pascha) Ascension Day was celebrated, mention of which is made al the Council of Nicaea (325). The preparatory time at first comprised only Holy Wcel(, which commenced with Palm Sunday.5 But the preparation of the catechumens or converts re­ quired more time, so that finally the whole Lenten season was de­ voted to the instruction of the candidates for Baptism. The liturgy of that time clearly portrays, not the Passion of our Lord, but this catechetical character. About the seventh or eighth century three pre-Lenten Sundays were added, viz.: Quinquagesima, Sexagesima 1 Sec K. Λ. H. Kellner, Heortologie, 1911; Engl, translation, 191S; DuchesncMcClurc. Christian Worthip, 1923, pp. 223 if.; also Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v.; Baeumer, O.S.B. Getchichte det Brewers, 1895, passim. 2 Acts II. 42, 46. 3 Apoc. I, 10. 4 96. 8 Sec the Peregrinatio Etheriae {Silviae) in Duchesne-McClure» pp. 504 f. 75 y6 HOLY SEASONS and Septuagesima, which were privileged as Station Sundays. These latter remind us of the station churches which arc of very ancient date.® They were places of worship assigned for certain, especially festival, days. Sometimes statio signifies the place of meeting, or the terminus a quo from which the faithful marched in procession to another, more important church. At any rate it was a sacred building, where some sort of common service was held.7 Christmas or Nativitas Domini is another point of liturgical gravitation. The feast of the birth of our Saviour, at first, and es­ pecially in the East, ceded its prerogative to Epiphany or Theophania. But towards the end of die fourth century the 25th of December, accepted as the day of the birth of our Lord, Christmas became another center for an extended liturgical celebration. It determined the octave, later on known as Circumcisio Domini, and received the addition of Advent, finally settled in the eleventh century. It also had some Saints’ feasts attached as well as a num­ ber of Sundays, though only the first two of these had any con­ nection with the spirit of Christmastide. The same is true of the Sundays after Pentecost, whilst the Sundays between Easter and Pentecost were fitted in with the liturgical sense. Three more feasts must here be mentioned. The first is that of the Blessed Trinity, an allusion to which is found in the Micrologies (eleventh century). But it was only under John XXII, in the year 1334, that this feast was made obligatory for the whole Church. A very popular feast is that of Corpus Christi, which owes its origin to the pious efforts of Juliana of Rctinnes, near Liège in Belgium (d. April 5, 1258) and to Jacob Pantaleon of Troyes, archdeacon of Liège, later Pope Urban IV. This Pontiff, by the Constitution "Transiturus” of Sept. 8, 1264, ordered the celebration of that great mystery on Thursday after Trinity Sunday by the universal Church. Later the theophoric procession was added. A feast that now is dear to the Christian people, but had many opponents, especially among the Jansenists, is that of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. St. Mar­ garet Mary Alacoquc (d. 1690), a Visitation nun of Paray-lcβ The name statio, military station, is derived from the four stationes into which the day was divided. J. P. Kirsch, Die Stationslprchen des Missale Romanum, 1926. 7 Sec the Peregrinatio quoted above: Station at Bethany, Golgotha, etc. HOLY SEASONS 77 Monial, was the means for the introduction of this feast, which was finally sanctioned by Clement XIII in 1765, and has since in­ creased in popularity. Pope Pius XI raised the rank of the feast to the first class with Octave. The same Pontiff also introduced a new feast, “Christ the King," to be celebrated on the last Sunday of October.8 Of the feasts of the Blessed Virgin the first four main ones are: the Purification, celebrated either on Feb. 14 or Feb. 2; the An­ nunciation (25 March), the "Nativity (8 Sept.), and the Dormitio or Assumption (15 Aug.). These arc mentioned by the Trullan Synod of 692. Other feasts were gradually added. The Immaculate Con­ ception was prescribed by Pope Clement IX, in 1708, after many vicissitudes. Among the feasts of the Saints mention must be made of those of Martyrs, which were the first to be celebrated, usually on the day of their martyrdom (dies natalis). Thus the 26th of January was celebrated at Smyrna immediately after the death of the great Bishop Polycarp (d. 155). Another early feastday was the dies natalis ss. Apostolorum Petri cl Pauli, held on June 29. It should be noted that these festivals were at first local, and only later were transferred from one church to another. Of the Confessors' feasts the first one to be celebrated was that of Pope St. Sylvester, and that of St. Martin of Tours? Through the efforts of St. Bernardino of Siena and St. Teresa the feast of St. Joseph was universalized in 1621 by Gregory XV. But all these feasts, though like so many mov­ ing stars on the liturgical horizon, had but little relation to the main idea of the liturgical year. Not only the main feasts, but many others, in course of time received an octave. The increasing number of feastdays caused many private per­ sons, like the chancellor of the university of Paris, Gerson, and also some governments to demand a diminution. Urban VIII met this justified request to some extent, but left thirty-four days of obligation besides the ordinary Sundays.10 The increased number of feastdays was due, in part at least, not only to religious Orders, « "Miscrcntissimus,” May 8. 1928 (Λ- /fp. S.. XX. 165.4.); Kellner, I. c., p. 89 if.: Quas primas, Dec. n, 1925 {A. Ap. S,, XVII, 593 Π.). *· Funk» Manual of Church History, 1913, I > p. 199 f· 10 By the Constitution “Universa per orbcm," Sept. 24» Kellner, I. c., p. 22 if. 78 HOLY SEASON'S but also to the right of the bishops to regulate the feastdays. The Code has now formally reserved that power to the supreme au­ thority of the Church,11 as follows: The Supreme Pontiff alone can establish, transfer, or abolish holydays as well as days of fast­ ing and abstinence. But the local Ordinary may, “per modum tantum actus” (i.e., for a transient reason and for the time being, but not forever or habitually), prescribe the observance of a feast­ day or of a day of fast or abstinence. As to the number of feastdays the Code rules:12 “Feastdays of obligation for lhe universal Church are: All Sundays; Christmas (Dec. 25); the Circumcision of Our Lord (New Year’s Day, Jan. 1); Epiphany (Jan. 6); the Ascension of Our Lord; Corpus Christi (Thursday after Trinity Sunday); the Immaculate Conception of the B.V.M. (Dec. 8); the Assumption of the B.V.M. (Aug. 15); St. Joseph’s Day (March 19); the festival of SS. Peter and Paul (June 29); and All Saints’ Day (Nov. 1). If any of the above-named holydays of obligation have been anywhere abolished or trans­ ferred, nothing shall be changed without the advice of the Apos­ tolic See. In the United States, under a decree of the S. C. de Propaganda Fide of Nov. 25, 1885, there are only six holydays of obligation, namely, the feast of the Immaculate Conception, Christ­ mas, New Year’s Day (the Circumcision), the Ascension, the Assumption of the B.V.M., and All Saints. In Canada the pro­ vincial council of Quebec (1854) asked for an arrangement of feasts similar to that made for the United States. The S. Congregation answered affirmatively, bur commanded the retention of the feast of Epiphany and the omission of the Assumption. lienee, the Canadians, too, have six holydays of obligation; but instead of the Assumption they have Epiphany. On the islands of Trinidad and Dominica the feasts of the Assumption and of SS. Peter and Paul arc transferred to the following Sunday, but the office and cere­ monies must be held on the day itself. The Catholics of England, at present, celebrate as holydays: Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, each one day, New Year’s Day, Epiphany, Ascension, Corpus Christi, 11 Can. 1244. 12 Can. 1247. FAST DAYS 79 SS. Peter and Paul, Assumption, All Saints’ Day; Scotland, besides those just named, has the feast of St. Andrew (Nov. 30); Ireland, besides those mentioned for England, also St. Patrick’s Day (March 17) and lhe Annunciation (March 25).13 FAST DAYS Fast days interest the liturgist only as far as the service is con­ cerned. Lent {Quadragesima), as we have it now, went through a gradual development. No traces are found of its observance before the fourth century. About the middle of the fifth century the greater number of local divergences had disappeared. The liturgical serv­ ice in the strict sense of the word was held since the seventh century, though the Gclasian Sacramcntary assigns no Mass for Thursday.14 What made the Lenten service so important was not lhe reference to the Passion of our Lord, but the instruction of the catechumens. This is still indicated in the formularies now in use. Concerning the fast days, it is well known that the Christians took over from the Jews two weekly fast days, but changed them from Monday and Thursday to Wednesday and Friday. But (here were no liturgi­ cal services held on these days up to the beginning of the fifth century.15 At Rome, in course of time, Saturday became a day of fasting, most probably as a prolongation of the Friday fast. But it also became a vigil for certain solemn seasons, such as Easter, Whit­ suntide, and the Ember Saturdays. The Ember weeks did not come into use until the fifth century, and appear to be either a develop­ ment of lhe weekly fast,1® or more probably of the agricultural festi­ vals of Pagan Rome.17 The people, no doubt, connected them with the harvest season. The celebration of these Ember weeks was not settled until the time of Pope Gregory VII, who fixed them as they arc now observed.18 Il is probable that the full liturgy, viz., the office and the Eucharist, was held on Ember Days almost from the be13 Kellner, /. c,t p. 27. 14 Duchcsnc-McClurc, /. c.. pp. 241 ff. 16 Ep, Innocemii I. 16 Duchcsnc-McClurc. /. e., p. 233. |T Kellner, /. r., pp. 141 f. 13 Kellner, I. c., p. 145. 8o HOLY SEASONS ginning.19 This all the more since the ordination of deacons and priests was permitted on these days from the time of Gclasius I (492-496).20 if Kellner, I. c., p. 142. 20 Kellner, I. c.. p. 10. Chapter III LITURGICAL ACTIONS Liturgical actions arc bodily movements or gestures more or less significative of the liturgical rite. Of course, they are not supposed to be merely indifferent, but human acts. The body, too, must take its part in the worship of the Creator. Of these actions, some are sacramcntals,1 for instance, the Sign of the Cross, some arc signs of reverence, some arc accompaniments of words, and some belong to vocal exercises. Besides, there is a certain bodily attitude or posture prescribed for the liturgical services. § I. BODILY ATTITUDE A reverent attitude or posture of the body at private as well as public prayer was observed by the early Christians. The proper pos­ ture appears to have been cither standing or kneeling. The former is that of the officiating clergyman, but also of the flock, especially during Eastertide and on Sundays. Kneeling was the rule for peni­ tential days, and eventually became the more usual custom among the people. A sitting position was not much favored in earlier times. In some churches a kind of supporting stave was in use. Yet from Justin’s Apology 2 and the Apostolic Constitutions 3 we learn that the people attended Scripture reading (except the Gospel) and homily in a sitting position. This became more customary in later times. The general rules, now in force according to approved liturgists, may be summed up thus: i. The choir stands: (a) During the Divine Office: during the recital of the “Pater,” “Ave,” “Credo" (except at ferial “preces” when kneeling is prescribed), at the beginning and closing of the 1 Sec can. i144. 2 Apol., I» 67· 3 Const. Apost., II, 57; Thalhofcr, /. c.> I, p. 289, 5 41. 81 82 LITURGICAL ACTIONS canonical hours, during the antiphons of the “Magnificat” and “Benedictus” and these canticles themselves, at the vcrsicle after each nocturn, the “Te Deum” and “Quicumque" the hebdoma­ darius when alone reciting or singing a part of the office, or when giving the blessing. Prelates sit when they give the blessing at Matins. b) At Solemn Masses (Missae cantatae), from the “Aufer a no­ bis” until the “Gloria,” during the orations, except in penitential and “black” Masses, from the beginning of the Gospel till the “Credo” or the Offertory respectively; when the choir is incensed, from the “Dominus vobiscum” until the end of the Mass, except at the blessing of the celebrant, when all kneel (except prelates). 2. The choir sits: (a) in Divine Office: during the recitation or chanting of the psalms, lessons, and the whole office of the dead.4 (b) At solemn or sung Masses the celebrant and ministers may be seated at the “Kyrie,” "Gloria,” “Credo”; and when they are seated the acolytes and thurifer may also be seated on the altar steps.5 After the celebrant with the ministers has finished the confiteor, all in choir sit and do not arise until die celebrant signs himself for the Introit, and then all recite the “Kyrie eleison.” The choir also sits during the incensation of the oblation and the celebrant, but arises when the choir itself is incensed.0 Silting is also recommended at the Epistle, the Prophecies, the Gradual or Tract, the Sequence, from ihe Offertory to the Preface, and from the Communion to the "Dominus vobiscum.”7 Concerning the Master of Ceremonies several decrees say that he must stand at Vespers, Matins, Lauds, and whenever he actually exercises his office? Whenever the cele­ brant is seated, all of the choir and personnel may likewise sit? The turning of the worshipers towards the East, “versus Orien­ tem,” is another ancient custom, based on the mystical meaning 4 Cacrem. Episc., 11» i and 5; concerning the Off. Dej.: "Sessio emm est symbolum quietis, et per sessionem innuitur nos optare defunctis requiem sempiternam.” De Carpo apud Wappelhorst. ed. 10, n. 347, p. 502. *S.R.C.» Dec. 18, 1779, ad 5 (n. 2515). eS.R.C.» April 4. 1879. ad 5 (n. 3491). 7 Rub. General. Missalit, tic. XVH. gS.R.C., May 31, 1817. ad 8 et 9 (n. 2578): "affirmative, dum munus accualiter excreet, secus negative." This would leave some lime to sit down, for instance, at die "Gloria” and ” Credo." * Vcneroni, Z. c., 1. p. 247. REVERENCES 83 of Christ as the rising sun, the light of the world, mounted above the heaven of heavens, to the East. It was, therefore, but natural that the churches were built toward the ‘‘Oriens ex alto” and that the liturgical representative should turn toward the East.10 Con­ sequently, not only during the holy Sacrifice, but also in the Office, the hebdomadarius turns toward the altar as he intones the “Deus in adjutorium.” He maintains this posture when reciting the prayer, absolution, and oration, unless kneeling is prescribed. §2. REVERENCES Reverence, from the Latin “revereri,” means awe, respect, regard for someone higher or equal. This respect may be manifested by a gesture of die body. Gestures arc largely governed by national char­ acteristics.11 Ecclesiastical usage, from time immemorial, has dis­ tinguished prostrations, genuflections, inclinations and bows. All these movements are meant either to protest our sinful conscious­ ness or intensify our suppliant appeal to the Almighty Giver of every good gift.12 Prostrations arc acts of reverence in which the whole body is thrown upon the ground. This is called “proskynesis” in the strict sense of the word. In liturgical functions this act of reverence is very rare. It is prescribed for the beginning of the Good Friday service, when the celebrant and ministers prostrate themselves for a brief time before the altar.13 It also occurs on Holy Saturday and on the Saturday before Pentecost, when the celebrant and ministers prostrate themselves before the altar steps while the Litany of All Saints is being chanted, until the “Peccatores, Te rogamus,” when they arise.14 Otherwise, the officiating priest never prostrates him­ self. Genuflections consist in the bending of one or both knees so as 10 P$. 67, 33; Thalhofcr, /. c., I, p. 605 if. 11 Oriental and Southern races appear to have more supple limbs and softer muscles than the Northern peoples. Therefore, reverences are more natural and agreeable to the former than to the latter. 12 S. Augustine (Hom. ad I Dominicam post Pent.) says: ‘Omnes, quando oramus, mendici Dei sumus, ante januam magni patris familias stamus, imo et prosternimur, supplices ingemiscimus» aliquid volentes accipere”; Thalhofen /. c.. pp. 587 and 592 ff. 13 Rtib. Missalit Rom. in Parasccvc Dom. 34 Rub. Missdlis in Sabbato Sancto. l·- LIBRARY ^3 84 LITURGICAL ACTIONS to touch the earth or floor. This custom is of later date and was not made obligatory before the end of the XVth century. Genuflection is a strictly Roman custom; the Orientals merely bowed the head and body.15 There arc quite a number of rules stated in the collec­ tion of the S. Congregation of Rites, of which the chief ones may find a place here. Two kinds of genuflection are distinguished, viz.: a double, when both knees are bent to the ground, and a simple, when only the right knee is bent. The latter is never accom­ panied by a bow of the head or body, while the double is often made with a bow of the head.10 1. At rhe Divine Office, when it is recited in choir, all genuflect with a double genuflection, at the words “Venite adoremus, et pro­ cidamus ante Deum,” of the invitatory psalm; at the “Te ergo quaesumus, tuis famulis subveni,” etc., of the “Te Deum”; at the first verse of the “Ave maris Stella” or of the first stanza of the “Veni Creator Spiritus,” at the “O Crux ave spes unica”; at the “Tantum ergo” of the hymn “Pange lingua” at Vespers of “Corpus Christi,” if the Blessed Sacrament is on the high altar, even though enclosed.17 The same is to be said concerning the double genuflec­ tion which is made at the recital of the antiphon of the Blessed Virgin at the end of the Office, and at the “Sacrosanctae” with “Pater” and “Ave.” When the martyrology is chanted on Dec. 24th, the choir makes a double genuflection with a bow at the words: “In Bethlehem . . . secundum carnem,” while the chanter and acolytes stand; only after these words have been sung does the precentor make a (simple) genuflection.18 2. At Mass: a) At all ferial Masses of Advent and Lent and on Ember Days and Vigils which have a fast attached, all (prelates and canons included) must kneel from the “Sanctus” to the “Pax Domini,” inclusive, and from the Post-Communion to the bless­ ing.10 b) At other Masses, either solemn or simply chanted, kneeling 10 See Cath. Encycl·, "Genuflection.” Vol. VI» 426. 10 See S.R.C.» Feb. 16, 1906 (n. 4 *79)· X7S.R.C.» Nov. 14. 1676, ad 7 (nn. 1583; see 1322, 1280, 2682). There is no rubric or decision presenting a genuflection at the ”O salutaris." Vcneroni, /. c., i, 249. 29 Rub. Gen. Mm., Tit. XVII, 5; rhe Vigils of Easter and Pentecost and Pentecost Ember Days arc excepted. REVERENCES 85 (without a bow) is prescribed from the beginning of the Mass until the celebrant ascends the altar, at the “Et incarnatus est,' from the “Sanctus” to the second elevation, inclusive, when the blessing is given (with the exception of prelates and canons) at the words “Et verbum,” etc. Concerning the “Et incarnatus est," the rules prescribe that only those members of the choir must genuflect who arc still standing, not those who are already seated.20 But on the feasts of Christmas and the Annunciation (also when transferred) all, the celebrant as well as the ministers and the bishop, if present, must genuflect when these words arc chanted, although they recite the same words at the altar. * 1 c) Canons (and prelates) have to make only a simple genuflec­ tion when they pass by an altar where Mass is being said, provided, of course, it be not at the moment of elevation. Priests who (in the act of going to or coming from saying Mass) pass by an altar where Mass is being said, need not genuflect between consecration and communion, unless perchance they notice that this part of the Mass is going on. Candle or torch bearers (ceroferarii'), when carrying their torches back to the sacristy, make a simple genuflection.22 A priest who is without a server and has to move the missal him­ self need not genuflect, although he says Mass on an altar where the Blessed Sacrament is reserved; neither when he turns from the epistle side to the Gospel side to read the Passion.23 3. When the Blessed Sacrament is exposed, the celebrant and ministers make a double genuflection at the start and the close of Mass, a simple genuflection during Mass and on the last step, when genuflections arc required.21 When the Blessed Sacrament is not exposed all must make a simple genuflection.25 4. Before the cross or crucifix on the main altar a simple genu­ flection must be made by all, except cathedral canons, when they perform a function, also in other than cathedral churches and public oratories.215 If a panicle of the true Cross is exposed in a 20S.R.C.» 21 S.R.C., 22 S.R.C., 23 S.R.C., 24S.R.C., 25 S.R.C., 2eS.R.C., July 22, 1848, ad 2 (n. 2960). Nov. 24, 1911 (n. 4281). May 20, 1904 (n. 4135). Jan. 14, 1898, ad II (n. 3975). Nov. 12, 1831, ad 47 (n. 2686). July 7, 1876, ad 2 (n. 3402). Aug. 30, 1892, ad 11 (n. 3792). 86 LITURGICAL ACTIONS prominent place on the altar, a simple genuflection is required.27 From the beginning of the adoration of the holy Cross on Good Friday until None of Holy Saturday a simple genuflection must be made by those who pass by the holy cross.28 When the celebrant incenses a relic of the true Cross he does so standing; those who pass by the altar in which the relic is not exposed need not genu­ flect.29 5. When the diocesan bishop performs a function or assists thereat, all except canons must genuflect whenever they pass him.30 §3. INCLINATIONS Inclinations are distinctive signs of reverence and occur in Holy Writ as marks of adoration in the strict as well as in the wider sense.81 They are mentioned in the Apostolic Constitutions, in the Ordines Romani, and the Missals.32 Rubricists distinguish two kinds of inclinations: (1) of the whole body (inclinatio corporis) and (2) of the head only (inclinatio capitis). The inclinations of the body are subdivided into: (1) profound (incl. corp, profunda); and (2) moderate (incl. corp, mediocris). The profound inclination is made by bending the waist, so that, if standing, a person can easily touch the knees with the extremities of his fingers. In the rubrics it is indicated by the words “profunde inclinatus,” “profunda reverentia.” For the sake of brevity it is often designated “incl. I.” The moderate inclination is made by lowering the head and to some extent bending the body, so that at the altar the forehead of the celebrant would be on a line with the pall of the chalice. In the rubrics it is indicated by the words “in­ clinatus,” “aliquantulum, parum, mediocriter inclinatus.” For the sake of brevity, it is called “incl. II." The inclinations of the head are subdivided into: (1) profunda; (2) media; (3) minima. The profunda is made by inclining the head as far as possible 2T S.R.C., .May 7, 1746, ad 7 (n. 2390). 28 S.R.C., May 9, 1857, ad 5 (n. 3049). 2BS.R.C., Sept. 15, 1736 (n. 2324). 30 Caerem. Ep., VIII, 3; S.R.C., May 9, 1857 (n. 3046). 31 See Gen. 23, 7; 24, 26: 33, 3; 1 Kings 24. 19: 1 Chron. 29, 20. 32 Corm. Ap.. VIII, 6, 8, 15; Thalhofcr, I. c., I, pp. 599 f· GESTURES OF THE HEAD 87 towards the breast, and to some extent bending the shoulders. It corresponds to “latria” and is made, c.g., when the Holy Name is pronounced,33 or when anything is done or said that refers to God, c.g., bowing to the cross at the altar, or in the sacristy before and after Mass, when passing the relics of the true Cross, at the word “Oremus,” etc. At the altar it is made to the cross, or to the Blessed Sacrament when exposed, but during the reading of the Gospel it is always made toward the Missal. In the rubrics it is indicated by the words “caput inclinat,” “caput profunde inclinat," “pro­ fundius inclinat,” “capitis reverentia.” For the sake of brevity it is indicated by “incl. III.” The media is made by bowing the head notably without moving the shoulders. It corresponds to the wor­ ship of "hyperdulia,” and is made as often as the name of the Blessed Virgin occurs. For the sake of brevity, it is indicated by “incl. IV.” The minima is made by slightly bending the head with­ out moving the shoulders. It corresponds to the worship of “dulia” and is made at the mention of the names of the Saints in whose honor rhe Holy Sacrifice is offered, or of whom a commemoration is made, because it is their feast day, or the “dies octava" or “dies infra octavam.” 84 The minima is also made as often as the name of the reigning Pontiff occurs, or that of the Ordinary, if a special oration is recited for him, c.g., on the anniversary of his election or consecration. It is not made when the Ordinary’s name occurs in the canon of the Mass.35 For the sake of brevity it is designated "incl. V.” The media and minima arc made toward the Missal, except when a statue or picture of the Blessed Virgin or of the Saint occupies a prominent place on the altar; then the inclination is made toward the statue or picture.3® § 4. GESTURES OF THE HEAD The head is the noblest part of the body and makes certain 33 Caerem. Episc., lib. 11, cap. VIII, n. 46. 34 This inclination is not made when the names of these saints arc mentioned on their feast days in the titles of the Epistles or Gospels (S.R.C., Feb. 13, 1892, ad XXV, n. 3767), or in the orations "A cunctis" or “Ad libitum." or in Requiem Masses, c.g., in the Canon. aRS.R.C., March 13, 1700· ad III (n. 2049). 3e S.R.C., Feb. 13, 1892, ad XXV (n. 3767); Fc<~/. Review, 1905, Vol. 32, p. 399 f. 88 LITURGICAL ACTIONS movements of reverence by means of the eyes or the headgear. Elevation of the eyes is a symbol of desire and hope, and conse­ quently natural to the act of prayer.87 Whenever a bow or genu­ flection is made, the eyes arc lowered to signify the sentiment of humility.38 The eyes are raised when looking at the Cross or at the Sacred Species, raised aloft. They are fixed upon the Host at the Memento for the dead, at the Pater Noster, and the three orations before Communion.30 The liturgical custom of covering and uncovering the head is founded partly on a well-known text of St. Paul,10 partly it is a later development of a more practical kind. The symbolic signif­ icance of praying with the head covered or uncovered is derived, on the one hand, from the dignity of the liturgist as the representa­ tive of Christ, and on the other hand, from his dependence on, and subjection to, Christ. Hence, when the priest functions or prays in the person of Christ, he uncovers his head. When he takes an in­ ferior position as a servant of Christ, viz., when he is not in action, or at least does not perform a liturgical act, or pray or bless, he covers his head.41 The practice of covering the head was often dic­ tated by cold weather or bodily infirmity. Liturgical head covering was hardly known until the eleventh century. It may have developed from the amice, instead of which the monks later wore the hood (capucium) and the canons the almutium (a sort of pelt). Later on the biretta came into vogue.42 As to the rules which regulate the covering or uncovering of the head, the chief ones arc the following (to be applied, however, with some discretion) : I. During the recital of the Divine Office the head is covered when the chorales are seated, and it is not necessary to uncover at the words, “Tu autem Domine, etc.,” at the end of the lessons.43 37 See Psalms 24 and 122. ** Luke XVlll, 13. 30 Ritus cclcb. Mist.» tit. X; Vcneroni, /. c., p. 253. <0 i Cor. XI, 3 if. 41 Thalhofer, /. c., L p. 624. 42 The Jewish ministers cover their heads at liturgical functions, thereby following the Old Law (Lev. 28, 13 if.). The Greeks looked upon the covered head as a sign of *slaver} , as slaves had to leave their heads covered in the presence of their masters. 48S.R.C., Aug. 18, 1877, ad VII (n. 3434). Canons, etc,, must stand "capite detecto" when an antiphon is intoned. (Dec. 10, 1718, ad 3; n. 2258.) GESTURES OF THE HEAD 89 There is no rigid rule which prescribes covering the head when reciting the Office or when the choir is seated. 2. It is a general rule to cover the head when going to the altar to say Mass and when returning to the sacristy; “ also whenever the celebrant and ministers arc seated. 3. When, during solemn Mass, the "Gloria Patri" and "Incarna­ tus” arc sung or the names of Jesus or of the Blessed Trinity arc mentioned, the head must be uncovered; also al the incensation.43 4. When the celebrant performs a liturgical function, he docs so with his head uncovered. This rule is to be observed also at the dis­ tribution of candles, ashes, and palms; but the celebrant and minis­ ters should be seated, with heads covered, when the bishop distributes these things.48 5. During procession, even though relics of Saints arc carried, the bishop and clergy, except those who carry the sacred relics, march with heads covered outside the church.47 But in processions with the Blessed Sacrament no man is allowed to have his head covered.·1''’ The last-mentioned rule also holds in processions with a particle of the Holy Cross.49 6. When, during Mass or Office, the ministers and master of ceremonies salute the choir, the latter returns the salute by un­ covering the head, but without rising.50 7. Concerning the use of the pileolus or skullcap, it has been decided that it must be taken off in choir when the prelates pass by the altar, when they genuflect, recite the “Confiteor,” or are incensed; during the Office, when they themselves intone psalms or antiphons, read or chant the invitatory, lessons, brief responsorics, martyrology; during Mass, when they arc sprinkled with Holy Water, when they say the "Gloria,” “Credo,” "Sanctus,” “Agnus Dei,” while the Gospel is being sung, when they receive or give the "Pax”; when the Blessed Sacrament is 41 Concerning the Augustinian *, the S.R.C. decided that they must cover the head with the amice (Dec. Auth.. n. 693.) 45 Thus the rubricists. ■* n Dee. Auth., n. 501; n. 2184, ad 1. 4T Dec. Auth., n. 1352: “licet." n. 1352, 1841, ad 1; 3276, ad 2, etc. 40 Ibid., n. 1841, ad 1. wlbid„ n. 3059, ad VI: “Caput tantum aperiendo, non assurgendo, juxta praxim." 90 LITURGICAL ACTIONS elevated, distributed or carried about; and at the end of the Mass.61 8. There is also a rule concerning women covering their heads, viz., when they assist at a sacred function, even though tins assist­ ance happens to be within a compartment which has a window to the church where the functions arc performed.02 § 5. GESTURES OF THE HANDS The hands as emblems of work and skill had their share in liturgical functions in Jewish and pagan worship.03 Christ extended His Sacred Hands upon the Cross, and before He ascended into Heaven, lifted up His Hands and blessed His disciples.01 The “orans” in the catacombs, a symbol of the liberated soul, extends her hands. To pray “expansis manibus” was an imitation of Christ’s passion prayer.50 The gesture of praying with outstretched or folded hands signifies an ardent desire to be heard or joy or thanksgiv­ ing.0® Christian liturgy knows four gestures performed by the hands: they arc extended, folded, laid upon an object, or washed. Con­ cerning the stretching out of the hands, the Latin term for which is "extensis manibus" (not “expansis”), it may be noted that the Ambrosian and Dominican rituals prescribe a straight expansion in a horizontal direction, so that the body of the priest forms, as it were, the letter “T.” The Roman Ritual calls for a stretching out of the arms in such a manner that they arc even with the shoulders in height and width. The folding of the hands is done by placing the palms together, putting the right thumb on the left one and holding the hands thus joined before the breast. As a general rule, and unless otherwise prescribed, the hands arc folded during the liturgical functions. Only when the orations arc sung or recited during Mass, arc the hands stretched out. Outside the Mass, as in51 56 55 *54 52 51 S.R.C., April 4, 1879, ad 1 (n. 349>)· 52S.R.C., July 7, 1876, ad IV (n. 3402). 55 Greeks and Romans stretched out their hands towards their deities; the Psalms allude to "levare manus” (27, 2; 133, 2); a classical example is the prayer of Moses, Exod. 17, 11 ff. 54 Luke 24, 50. 55Tcrtull., De Oratione, c. 14. 56 Thalhofer, /. e., 1, 608 if. THE SIGN OF THE CROSS 9’ the Office or blessings (e.g., of candles, ashes, or palms), or in the administration of the Sacraments, the hands are folded.87 To lay hands upon persons and objects is a venerable custom used in the Old and the New Testament, and signifies the communica­ tion of a supernatural power or gift to a person or object or in­ vestiture with a sacred office.58 The hands arc imposed upon the oblation in the administration of Baptism, Confirmation, Ordina­ tion of priests, and in exorcisms.59 In the washing of hands the real and mystical significance of the ceremony is obviously cleanliness. It is not necessary to recall the many purifications of the Jewish rite. The Christians followed this custom at their private and public worship, but in a more spiritual­ ized manner.00 According to present usage the priest washes his hands while reciting the short prayer “Da Domine,” before Mass, and at the so-called “Lavabo” with part of Psalm 25 during Mass. For this purpose he must use the water-cruet, not the basin.01 The ablution after Communion is also part of the liturgical washing. The bishop washes his hands in the basin after Communion, but not after Mass.02 Nor is there any rubric prescribing the washing of hands after Mass for priests, though custom appears to have sanc­ tioned this practice.03 §6. The Sign of the Cross04 Another manual gesture, and the noblest one of all, is the Sign of the Cross. There are three varieties: (a) the large cross, (b) the small cross, (c) the air cross. The large cross is (raced from forehead to breast and from the left to the right shoulder. The small cross is made with the thumb of the right hand on the fore­ head, lips, and breast, impressing the sign of the cross on each part. The cross made in the air is that by which prelates and priests bless 07 Veneroni, I. c., I. 254. MNumb. 27. 33; Lev. 24, 14; Matt. 9, 13; Acts 13, 3; 19, 6. 59 Thalhofcr, I. c., p. 612; p. 644 ff. «° Mark 7. 3 f. TertulL, Apol.. c. 39; De Oral., c. 13; Thalhofcr. I. c.. pp. 615 L eiS.R.C.> July i8. 1902, ad 4 (n. 4100). 02S.R.C., May 15, 1900» ad 2 (n. 4056). 03 Veneroni, /. c.t p. 256. e< See Cath. Encyclopedia. Vol. XIII, 785 Thalhofcr, I. c. I, pp. 629 A·; Vcncrom, I. 259 f. 92 LITURGICAL ACTIONS persons and objects. The Missal says:05 “Whenever the priest blesses himself, he places his left hand below the breast. In other blessings, when he is at the altar and blesses the oblations {oblata) or something else, he places the left hand on the altar unless other­ wise stated. In blessing himself the palm of the hand is turned toward himself, the fingers are extended but joined, and he makes the large sign of the cross. When he blesses some object or other, he points the little finger toward the thing to be blessed and has the fingers stretched out but joined in the act of blessing. This is the mode of all blessings.” The sign of the cross should never ex­ tend over the head, nor beyond the shoulders; it should be distinct, cover the oblata, and be made with the body erect. The Sign of the Cross is one of the most ancient Christian cus­ toms.00 The small cross is the older; the large one was introduced gradually at the time of the Monophysite controversy (fifth to tenth century) and became more usual, especially in the liturgy. It was, from the earliest times, accompanied by some such formula as: “The sign of Christ”; “In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost”; “In the name of Jesus”; “In the name of the Holy Trinity." As a sign of salvation it is used forty times in holy Mass, as a symbol of communion with God it occurs frequently (about nine times) in the Holy Office. As a sacramental or symbol of grace it is employed in the administra­ tion of the Sacraments.07 §7. THE LITURGICAL KISS The kiss was ever regarded as a sign of love and veneration for persons and objects that were connected by the bonds of nature or in high position. We meet with the "osculum sanctum” as a mode of salutation and brotherly love in the letters of the Apostles.08 Both the Eastern and the Western Church introduced this sign of love into their liturgies. Besides fraternal love and veneration for 65 Ritu/ celeb. Mi//., tit. 3, n. 5. Sec Tcrtullian’s well-known text in De Corona Militi/, c. 3: "In all our coming in and going out . . . whatever employment occupies us, we mark our foreheads with the Sign of the Cross. * ’ 1,7 Vcncroni, I. c., p. 261. 68 Rom. r 6» 16; i Cor. 16, 20; 1 Pet. 5, 14, etc. THE LITURGICAL KISS 93 superiors and sacred objects there is the expression of peace em­ phasized in the so-called “Pax.” This, up to the thirteenth century, was also communicated by a kiss, when the “instrumentum pads' appeared, especially in England. The papal Mass has an elaborate ceremony of kissing the Pope’s mouth, breast, shoulders, hands, arms, feet, and knees.0'* a) The reverential l(iss is given to the bishop or celebrant, and also to sacred objects, such as altar, chalice, blessed things when receiving them, and the gospel book. Whenever something is pre­ sented to the celebrant—for instance, the thurible—the minister kisses first the object and then the hand of the celebrant. When receiving it back the hand is kissed, and then the object.10 Λ reverential kiss is that imprinted on the altar, which in solemn High Mass is done nine times. It signifies a participation with the High Priest, Jesus Christ, and devotion to Him who sacrifices Him­ self thereon.71 In kissing the altar, the celebrant lets his hands rest on the altar table. Another reverential kiss is given to the gospel book, or, more precisely, the beginning of the Gospel text read on the respective day. When the bishop assists at Mass, in rochet and mozzetta, the book is carried to him for the kiss.72 Other osculations arc those of the chalice, paten, sprinkler, incense boat, etc., which also bespeak the reverence of the persons who handle these objects. The kissing of the incense spoon is omitted when the Blessed Sacrament is to be incensed. b) The Pax or kiss of peace, which is a practical symbol of the fraternal love emanating from Christ, who is our peace,73 is given in accordance with the Roman Liturgy after the prayer: “Domine Jesu Christe, qui dixisti.’’71 It must not be omitted in solemn Mass when the Blessed Sacrament is exposed."5 But it is omitted on Holy Innoc. ΙΠ. De alt. myst., 1. VI. c. 6; Tbalhofcr» /. r., I, p. 647 fl. 70S.R.C., Sept. 16, 1865 (n. 3139): concerning candles and palms. But the rule stated above is generally given by liturgists. and must be observed also when the Mass is chanted "coram episcopo”; S.R.C., Sept. 12, 1857» ad 2 (n. 3057). ™ Thalhofer, I. c., J, 662. 7*S.R.C-> Aug. 18» 1877, ad 2 (n. 3434). It has been decided that the Gospel should not be offered for kissing to lay people: nn. 779, 1869, etc. 73 Col. I, 20. 74 The order is described in the Caerem, Episc., I. I, c. 24, § 2, etc. 73 S.R.C., Aug. 30, 1892, ad 4 (n. 3792). 94 LITURGICAL ACTIONS Thursday, probably on account of Judas the traitor, and as a sign of grief. This latter reason also dictated the omission of the kiss in Requiem Masses.78 The “instrumentum pacis” may be offered to male, but not to female, magistrates, no matter of what dignity.17 Canons must doff their skullcaps when they receive the “Pax.” 78 c) As a sign of reverence and obedience the ring of the diocesan bishop is kissed when he distributes Holy Communion to the clergy and the people. Outside his diocese it may, but need not be done.70 Pius X granted an indulgence of fifty days to all the faith­ fid who devoutly and contritely kiss the ring of a cardinal, arch­ bishop, or bishop.80 This applies also outside of liturgical functions. §8. 1NCENSATI0N 81 Incense was used profusely in Jewish and pagan temples. Its scent was supposed to be a liturgical offering, an act of adoration and prayer. The Christian idea of sacrifice did not exclude the use of incense and the most ancient liturgies contain references to incense used at the altar. But the act of incensing the Gospel, the oblata, etc., was not introduced into the Roman liturgy until later. In­ censing at the Introit, Gospel, and Offertory became general about the thirteenth century. A peculiar explanation is given by some liturgists of the inccnsation of persons,82 which is of a still later date. That the bishop and the celebrant, as the nearest representatives and partakers of the divine hierarchic and hieratic Victim, should be incensed, appears obvious, but that other clerics receive two or one swing of the censer can hardly be explained otherwise than as an act of dulia or adoration in the widest sense, viz., as a reveren­ tial act on the part of the Church towards her ministers and people. 70 Thalhofcr, I. c., I, p. 656. 77S.R.C., nn. 1830. 1952, 2105. 78 S.R.C., Jan. 12, 1878, ad II (n. 3488). 70 S.R.C., n. 1342, ad 2. 80 Pius X. March 18, 1909 (A. Ap. S., I. 277). 81 Thalhofer, I. c.. I, pp. 683 if.; Caih. Encyclopedia, VII, 716 f.; Duchcsne-McCture, I. c., p. 163. 82 Bona, Rerum liturg., I. I, c. 25, n. 9: “non ad dignitatis praerogativam ... sed ad religionem pertinet, ut nimirum excitet ad orationem et effectum divinae gratiae repraesentet.” INCENSATION. 95 The honor incensi certainly signifies this act.83 It would, there­ fore, seem quite proper if, instead of incensing each canon or priest or monk 84 singly, each choir side would receive three swings. Thus an unnecessary prolongation of the services might be avoided—not to the disedification of the people, at least in this country. Incensation is done by holding the censer (thuribulum) in the right hand at the height of the breast, and grasped by the chain near the cover; the left hand, holding the top of the chain, is placed on the breast. The censer is then raised upward to the height of the eyes, given an outward and slightly ascending motion towards the object to be incensed, and at once brought back to the starting point. This is the single swing. For a double swing the outward motion is repeated, the second movement being more pronounced than the first. The number of swings is fixed according to the dig­ nity of the ecclesiastic: the celebrant and prelate receive three swings, the canons two, other clerics one,80 seminarians three (but only in globo, in the form of a cross).80 The liturgists also lay down some general rules for the accurate and worthy performance of liturgical actions. These may be sum­ marized as follows: 1. The religious sense and conviction of God’s majesty, as taught by faith and grounded on the moral virtue of justice, to which every religious act belongs, should guide the clergyman in the per­ formance of the sacred liturgy. 2. He will, therefore, endeavor to acquire a knowledge of the fundamental rules of liturgy. He need not, of course, become a “stickler for rubrics,” which often savors of hypocrisy. 3. The movements of the body, head, and hands should be grave, but not theatrical, expressive of each action he performs, not blurred or slurred. A sense of symmetry and an artistic taste arc helpful also in liturgical functions—even at the cost of some little rubrics. Ba Caere in. Episc., 1.1, C. 23. 84 In some monasteries, like Clugny, the monks were formerly incensed at the 3d, 6th, and gth lessons of .Matins; Thalhofer, I. c., I. p. 690. 85 Why priest-monks receive two swings can only be explained on the assumption that they rank with canons; hut the analogy rests on a weak basis. 80 Caerem. Epise.. I, c. 23, n. 24. LITURGICAL ACTIONS 96 The rule given by St. Benedict for the performance of the Divine Office may be applied io ail liturgical actions: “Mens nostra con­ cordet voci nostrae”—let the mind be in accordance with the voice.87 § 9. CONDUCT ΟΓ THE MEMBERS OF THE CLERICAL CHOIR Here arc some general rules, gathered from various sources,88 which the clerical choir should observe. 1. The secular clergy, dressed in cassock and surplice, enter die sanctuary two by two, holding their birettas with both hands. 2. When they arrive at the altar, they genuflect two by two in piano, and having risen, salute one another, and then proceed to their places, one on one side of the choir, the other on the other side, and remain standing. 3. No one should enter or leave the choir (without necessity) whilst the celebrant is reciting the “Confiteor,” during the singing of the prayers, the “Gloria Patri,” the “Incarnatus est,” the “Veni Sancte Spiritus,” the “Adjuva nos,” etc. Should any one enter the choir at these junctures, he should stop, and kneel or stand, con­ forming himself to the rest of the choir; during the Confiteor, at the beginning of the Mass, he should remain kneeling till it is finished. 4. During the service the clergy should perform the acts of rever­ ence mentioned above,80 uniformly and devoutly, with due regard to symmetry and decorum. 5. If they go to Holy Communion, they should wear stoles accord­ ing to their rank (priests, deacons), and approach two by two, with heads uncovered, make a genuflection before the altar-steps, and another after descending from the edge of rhe platform. Then they should return to their places in the choir. 6. After the service, the chorales follow the acolytes and, having made a genuflection before the altar, return to the sacristy in the same manner as they came. Regula, cap. 19; Vencroni, /. c., I. p. 284 If. 88 Sec Cuerem. F.piiC., lib. I» which, however, offers no collection or systematic ex­ position of these rules; Martinucci-Mcnghini, Manuale Sf. Caeremoniarum, 1911, Vol. I, pp. 9 Ceremonial U.S., 1894» PP· <35 ff·; Wappclhorst-Brucggc, Com * pendium S. Lifurgiae, 1925, pp. 200 f.; pp. 500 f. 88 See pages 83 (Ï. THE CLERICAL CHOIR 97 7. Monastic or religious choirs have their own customs, more or less in conformity with those of the collegiate or cathedral chapters. Some religious houses hold a “station" before entering the church. This depends either on custom or on the structure of church and house. But the general rules with regard to the reverences are usu­ ally observed by monastic choirs. § 10. GENERAL RULES FOR THE ACOLYTES 80 1. Acolytes take the place of the clerics properly called by that name, and hence arc supposed to belong to the clerical state. Cus­ tom and lack of clerics have, however, admitted laymen, and espe­ cially boys and youths, to the service of the altar. These ought to be of unblemished character, docile, and of a pious disposition. Women arc not allowed to serve at the altar. Even Sisters and nuns must keep out of the sanctuary,81 though they may answer the Mass prayers from beyond the same. 2. At a private Mass there ought to be only one server. At a low Mass said by a prelate or on a festive occasion, and at a parochial or conventual Mass, two servers are permitted.02 3. Acolytes who walk and serve together, should be, as far as possible, of equal size. They should be dressed in cassock and sur­ plice at least for solemn occasions.83 4. They should be in the sacristy about ten or fifteen minutes before the service begins and make a short adoration before the Blessed Sacrament. They should observe silence in the sacristy, and if it is necessary to speak, employ a low tone of voice. 5. Their bodily posture should be always erect with the heels close together, somewhat like soldiers. When they genuflect or kneel, the body and head should not be bent, except when a double genuflection calls for an inclination. 6. When deacon and subdeacon are employed, the acolytes should aid them in vesting; they should do the same for the priest when 90 Sec Martinucci-Mcnghini, I. c., I, p. 113 fl-; Wappclhorst-Brueggc, /. c.. p. 198 f.; 212 f.; Hartmann, Repertorium Rituum, 1898, P- 760 fl. °’ S.R.C., Aug. 27, 1836, ad 8; March 18, 1899. ad VI (nn. 2745, 4015). '•* 2S.R.C., Sept. 12, 1857. ad VII. n. 3059). 93 Caer. Episc., I. 1, cap. XI, n. 8. 98 LITURGICAL ACTIONS he functions alone. They should furthermore assist the priest and ministers when they sit down or arise during the sacred functions. 7. At a signal given by the master of ceremonies, they should take their candles, and, meeting together, bow to the cross or to the chief picture in the sacristy, then, with their eyes modestly cast down, precede the clergy to the altar at a moderate pace. The first acolyte, at the right of his companion, holds the knob of the candle­ stick with his right hand, and the foot with his left; the second holds the knob with his left and the foot with his right. When they arrive at the altar, they make a genuflection on the floor, then separate and go to the corners of the steps, where they stand facing each other. 8. The acolytes, as a rule, should always stand. However, when the celebrant sits down, the servers may also be seated. Whilst the celebrant is singing or reading, the acolytes keep their hands joined before their breasts; at other times they keep them folded. In the choir the bow is generally made, first on the Gospel side and then on the Epistle side, beginning always with the greater dignitary. In carrying the torches, the acolytes hold them as follows: the first acolyte, being on the right hand of the other, holds the torch in his right hand, while his companion holds it in his left hand; when one hand only is occupied, the other is held open on the breast. When they present anything to the celebrant, they kiss it before they present it; and also when they receive it from him (ex­ cept in Masses for the dead). In passing the altar when going for the torches, they make a genuflection. Servers—this also holds for lay-brothers—should not attempt to hear several Masses whilst they serve one, lest incongruous movements be made, and both celebrant and server become distracted. Lastly, they should answer in an audible and distinct voice. 9. Acolytes are not allowed to open the Missal or point out the Mass prayers in private Masses.94 10. With regard to genuflections the following rules are to be observed: a) A simple genuflection (with one knee) is made before the 04 S.R.C., Sept. 7, 1816. ad 5 (n. 2572). Neither should priests or clerics in higher orders if serving private Masses, prepare or wipe the chalice (ibid., n. 6). THE CLERICAL CHOIR 99 altar where the Blessed Sacrament is reserved—before the cross of the main altar—in passing by an altar where Mass has reached the time of the elevation, provided one is aware of that moment— as often as the priest makes a genuflection, for instance, when reading the Epistle or Gospel that prescribes a genuflection. b) A double genuflection is made during the introductory pray­ ers of the Mass, at the “Suscipiat” (Offertory), at the last blessing, and at the incensation of the Blessed Sacrament. Furthermore, the acolytes kneel and bow when they pass by an altar where the Blessed Sacrament is exposed or where the elevation is just going on (in which case they must kneel until after the elevation and adora­ tion of the Precious Blood), and when they pass by a priest who is distributing Holy Communion. ii. The inclinations must be made according to the rules stated above.05 In particular: a) The profound inclination is made before the crucifix when leaving and returning to the sacristy. b) The moderate inclination is made at the words, “Deus tu con­ versus,” until the priest ascends the altar, or when the acolytes pass before a side altar where the Blessed Sacrament is not reserved. c) The minima or slight inclination is made at the mention of the Holy Names, at the “Dominus vobiscum,” the “Et incarnatus est,” the “Gratias agamus Domino Deo nostro,” and the “Agnus Dei.” When the acolytes approach the Epistle or Gospel side, they make this inclination towards the celebrant—or whenever they offer him something—at the last blessing. 08 Sec pages 86 fl. TITLE II THE DIVINE OFFICE1 From the early days of the Church, the divinely inspired Psalms have contributed marvelously to fostering piety among the faithful who offered “the sacrifice of praise always to God, that is to say, the fruit of lips confessing to His name.” 2 Just as the Psalms played a conspicuous rôle in the Old Testament, so they also do in the sacred liturgy and the Divine Office. Justly, therefore, have the decrees of the Roman Pontiffs, the canons of councils, and monas­ tic laws prescribed that both the secular and the religious clergy should chant or recite the entire psalter every week. Pius X in "Divino afflatu” returned to this practice in his reform of the Breviary. The Divine Office may be defined as the sum total of the public prayers prescribed by law for ecclesiastical persons, to be said in the name of the Church.3 Breviary is the name of the book which contains these prayers. This name docs not date back beyond the eleventh century. 1 See Batiffol, JJi/ioire dtt Bréviaire Romain, 1893; S. Bâumer, O.S.B., Getchichte des Brevier/, 1895; Duchcsne-McClurc, I. c., p. 446 iT-; Vcncroni, Manuale di Liturgie. 1827, Vd, II. 21-Icb. XIII, 15. 3 See Layman apud Vcncroni, I. c., p. 18. It is a duty for those consecrated to God, and it is called "divine" because its object is God and its end supernatural; Vcncroni, I. c., Π, p. 18; Can. 2256, n. 1. Chapter I HISTORICAL· DEVELOPMENT As (he seasons determine the course of the liturgical year, so docs the day determine the canonical hours. Day may signify the time from the rising to the setting of the sun (the natural day), or it may signify the span of 24 hours which constitutes the civil day. This was variously reckoned by the ancients, either from morn­ ing to morning (Babylonians), or from sunset to sunset (Greeks), or from midnight to midnight (Romans). The Hebrews borrowed the twelve-hour day from the Babylonians, but apparently adopted the Roman method of dividing the night into four vigils. In the tabernacle as well as in the temple the day was hallowed by three hours of sacrifice and prayer. The first, the sacrificium juge, was held between the rising of the sun and the third hour (about nine o’clock); the second (minchah or meal offering) at about noon­ time, or a little later; the third, or sacrificium vespertinum, began after the ninth hour (between three and four o’clock). During and after the exile two hours of public prayers were observed, although the restored temple service retained the three hours.4 Various periods have been assigned to the historical development of the Divine Office. i. The Patristic Age. The Acts of the Apostles report that the Apostles met in prayer al the third, sixth, and ninth hours.6 The synagogal (not Temple) service was adopted by the Christians. This service consisted of four elements: lections, chants, homilies, and prayers. Besides the shema (a kind of symbolism), some Psalms were sung at the morning and evening offering. On the Sabbath 4 Sec Baumer, /. r., pp. 19, 34. Some ancient terms for special hours arc: gallicinium —cockcrow; diluculum or or/ζσ solis—incipient morning; mane—early morning, in summer from 5 to 8 or 9 o’clock, in winter from 7 or 8 to 10 o’clock; vespera—from sunset to the appearance of the evening star (vesper); lucernarium—when the lights were lit, or the first night hours. °Acts 11, 15; X, 9; 111, I. 103 104 THE DIVINE OFFICE day the Canticle of Moses, “Audite caeli, quae loquor'’ (Deut. XXXII), was sung in the morning and the “Cantemus Domino” in the evening. Then followed a reading from “the law” or “the prophets,” to which was added an explanation or homily/’ The three hours of the day, tierce, sext, and none, were observed quite generally, although they still were of a private character. The bishop and the clergy in particular observed them. In the fourth century, they were adopted by the ascetics (monazontes in the Pere­ grinatio Ethcriae), that is, the monks attracted special attention to them. The practice in the monasteries, however, was neither uni­ versal nor uniform. Most monks set the morning prayer at a rather early hour, at cockcrow; this, therefore, became Matins in the modern acceptance.7 The Western Church received the impetus from the Orient, and St. Jerome appears to have been instrumental in the reform activity of Pope Damasus (366-384) concerning the Roman Liturgical Of­ fice. How far his reform extended cannot now be ascertained.4* But wc learn from Cassian ( -|- c. 435) that the monasteries of the West held Matins, Lauds. Prime, Tierce, Sext, None, and Vespers.0 St. Benedict ( 543) not only ordered and shortened the canon­ ical hours, but also influenced the cathedral churches to adopt the monastic curriculum. From Monte Cassino his “Opus Dei” was transferred to the Latcran and other basilicas in and near Rome. Benedictine missionaries carried it to other countries. What the Patriarch of the West added was Compline; but his chief merit consists in building a harmonious structure of psalmody which was not too heavy a burden and pretty evenly distributed. The logical sequence of hymns, psalms, lessons, versiclcs and orations for matins and little hours was his work, while for Lauds and Vespers the usage of the Church was retained. The words of the Psalmist were his ideal and discretion formed his guiding principle.10 “When al * Duchesne-McCIure, /. c.t pp. 47 f.; Baumer, I. c., p. 36. 7 According to the Peregrinatio Etheriae (Silviae), it would seem that at Jerusalem these monazontes were in the church from about one or two o’clock until daylight, and the bishop and some priests were there too. (W. Heraeus, Peregrinatio, 1929.) * Baumer, /. c.f p. 143. 0 De Coenobiorum Institutif, I. III. c. 4. (Migne, P.L.. 49, 126.) 10 Ps. 118, 164: “Septies in die laudem dixi tibi, et media nocte surgebam ad con­ fitendum ** tibi. (Baumer, Z. c., p. 169.) HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 105 length uniformity was arrived at, it was due to the influence of the Benedictine Rule, and especially to that of the great Roman monas­ teries which had sprung up, the basilicas of the Latcran, the Vatican, and Santa Maria Maggiore.” 11 2. The second period, from Gregory the Great to St. Pius V, is signalized by the reforms of the former Pontiff and by those in­ troduced by Gregory VII. Some additions, especially in the guise of tropi, were made and the Office grew longer. Gregory VII purged and shortened the longer lessons. At that lime also the name Bre­ viarium was adopted for the Office Book.12 A tendency to shorten the Roman Breviary still more manifested itself in the Roman Curia after the twelfth century. There were then two breviaries, one of the Roman Church and the other of the Roman Court. This caused quite a little confusion, which was increased by the adoption of the Roman Court’s office by the Friars Minor in the middle of the thirteenth century. The most important change was marked by the insertion of the legends of many Saints and by curtailing the lessons taken from Holy Scripture. In the fifteenth century, owing to a certain individualism and many mistakes that had crept into the text, the Breviary became very greatly diversified in various coun­ tries. Some changes in die hymns were ordered by Leo X, but the result was ridiculous. Somewhat more radical were the reformatory efforts of Cardinal Quinonez.13 3. The third period comprises the reforms from the Council of Trent to the revision made under Pope Pius X. The Fathers of the Council felt the need of reforming the various Breviaries, and especially of introducing some kind of unity into them. The rubrics required more system, the structure of the official prayerbook greater simplicity, the legends of the Saints a thorough revision, the Sun­ day as well as the ferial offices more prominence, and Holy Writ a more extensive consideration. The Fathers of the Council wisely entrusted this delicate and laborious task to a well selected com­ mission.11 We need not enter into the results of this combined 11 Duchesnc-McClurc, /. c.t p. 452. 12 In the Micrologus, λ. d. 1086. (Baumer, /. c.t p. 600.) 33 Sec Baumer, I. c.t p. 392 £f. The new Breviary has something in common with the ideas of Quinonez. 14 Baumer, /. p. 410; 416 ff. 106 THE DIVINE OFFICE work. Those who were accustomed to say the Office before 1913 arc well acquainted with the structure of the Breviary before the promulgation of the "Divino afflatu" The Constitution of Pius V, "Quod a nobis," July 9, 1568, abolished all Breviaries which did not exist 200 years before the promulgation of said Constitution, but left it also to die decision of bishops and their chapters whether or not to adopt the Breviary prescribed by St. Pius V. Later at­ tempts at reform were directed only to certain parts of the Breviary, not its general structure. Thus the edition published May to, 1602 (Constitution "Cum in Ecclesia”) amended the Latin text accord­ ing to the Vulgate and corrected some glaring mistakes in the legends. The reforms introduced under Urban VIII also touched the lives of the Saints and especially the forms of the hymns.15 Benedict XIV undertook to amend the Breviary, but was prevented by death (1750) from putting the finishing touches to his work. The Vatican Council seriously considered some improvements, which, however, were not made. Leo XIII enriched the Breviary with new offices of Saints and new votive offices, and raised the rank of some of the feast days.1'1 Otherwise the Breviary remained as it was left by the reform of St. Pius V. 4. Pius X, who had been a pastor almost from the day of his ordination, on the feast of All Saints, 1911, issued his Constitution "Divino afflatu," wherein he says that, first and above all, the timehonored readings from Holy Writ together with the rcsponsorics corresponding to the respective season should again obtain the place of honor, and, secondly, that the ancient Mass Liturgy of the Sundays and Ferial Days, more especially those of Lent, should be restored to their former dignity. He further ordained that by the re­ citation of all the Psalms each week die veneration of the Saints should suffer no detriment, and, on the other hand, the burden of reciting the Divine Office should be made lighter for the clergy. The day on which the obligation of reciting the Office according to the new rubrics began, was Jan. 1, 1913. The clergy who are obliged to follow the new rubrics are all clerics, secular as well as 14 This edition of the Breviary was published in 1632 ("Divinam Psalmodiam"). 1C Up to the ninth century there were only about 28 feasts of Saints in the liturgical year; in 1568 Pope Pius limited the number to 85; under Leo XHl the increase went to the limit; see Ecd. Rct icw, 1912, Vol. 46, p. 442. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 107 regular, who were wont to recite the Roman Breviary published by St. Pius V and reformed by Clement VIII, Urban VIII, and Leo XIII. Abrogatory and derogatory clauses arc added, so that no es­ cape was possible. Also the penalties are stated against those who fail to recite daily the canonical hours. The rubrics laid down in this Constitution arc the directive guides in the explanation added. For the rest, the recitation of die Breviary should be taught in the seminaries. Chapter II STRUCTURE OF THE BREVIARY The Breviary consists of preliminary rubrics, the ordinarium, the psalter, the commune temporis, the proprium Sanctorum, and the commune Sanctorum. The rubrics direct the cleric in the proper recital of the Office, either publicly or privately. The following parts, viz.: the seasons and feasts, have a certain interrelation, and are determined by their rank. The rank, on its part, fixes the occurrence and concurrence of the feasts throughout the year. The Commune Sanctorum is a general code for reciting the Office on the feastdays of Saints. § I. THE CALENDAR OF THE LITURGICAL YEAR One part of the four into which the Breviary is divided contains a rubric that reads: "de anno et ejus partibus." In the medieval schools the "computus ecclesiasticus," or reckon­ ing of time, constituted part of the clerical training.1 Now-a-days, ready-made tables added to the Breviary, render this mathema­ tical task easier. However, a few remarks on the Christian cal­ endar may not be superfluous. i. The ecclesiastical calendar, now almost universally adopted, is lunisolar, consisting of 12 months, or 52 weeks, or 365 days, or, more precisely, of 365 days -j- 5 hrs., 48 min., and 51 seconds.2 The difference between the lunar and solar year amounts to 11 days and has called for various reforms. The two more important ones were those of Julius Caesar (+44 b.c.) and Pope Gregory XIII, whose plan went into effect in 1582. When the Julian Calendar 1 See, for instance, the works of St. Bede, Rhabanus Maurus, etc., in Migne, P.L.; the Council nf Trent recommended the study of the to the clergy (Sew. XXIII, c. 18). Milles· S.J., Commentariur in Prooemium Breviarii e: hfissalis de Computo ce· cle>iasfico, 1865. 2 Sec Can. 32. 108 CALENDAR OF THE LITURGICAL YEAR 109 was introduced, the equinox of spring fell on the 22nd of March; when the reformation of the calendar was made, in 1582, it had retrograded to the nth, or ten days. In order to restore the equi­ nox to its former place, Pope Gregory XIII directed ten days to be suppressed in the calendar, so that the 41I1 of October was im­ mediately followed by the 15th of October, 1582. As the error of the Julian intercalation was now found to be three days in every 400 years, the Pontiff ordered the intercalations to be omitted on all the centenary years, excepting those that arc multiples of 400. According to the Gregorian rule of intercalation, therefore, every year of which the number is divisible by 4 without a re­ mainder, is a leap year, excepting the centurial years, which are leap years only when they arc divisible by 4 after omitting the two ciphers. Thus 1600 was a leap year, but 1700, 1800, and 1900 were common years; 2000 will again be a leap year.* 34From the Roman calendar we have borrowed some terms for dates that have partly entered our ecclesiastical calendar, viz., the “indictiones" and the dating of the days of the months. A cycle of 15 years is called an indiction, which term is taken from the imperial proclamation of a census of re-appraised landed estates {indicere censum'). The Roman, which is also the ecclesiastical, indiction begins with January 1st, 312. The number of the indiction is found by sub­ tracting 312 from the current number of the year and dividing the remainder by 15. Thus the formula may be expressed thus: a remainder of 12. Consequently the year 1929 is the 12th indiction. Another strictly Roman custom is the way of dating the days of the month according to calendae, nonae, idus. The calendae al­ ways fall on the first day of the month. But the idus and nonae differ as to their set date in four months of the year, viz., March, May, July, October.’ The nonae of these four months fell on the 7th day of the month, the idus on the 15th day, while in the other months they fell on the 5th and 13th of the month, respectively. 3 See the Rubrics in the Breviary, Pars Hiemalis: Hartmann, I. c., pp. 13 if.; En· cyclopedia Britannica, 1S99, Vol. IV, s. v., “Calendar,” pp. 667 if. 4 The memory is assisted by the mnemonic word: “milmo.” no THE DIVINE OFFICE In die Breviary there are some tables which contain calculations for every day of the year, with special reference to Easter. Thus, there is one called Tabula Paschalis Nova Rejormata; another is named Tabella T'emporaria Festorum Mobilium. In this latter wc notice in the first column the current year, say 1929; then in the second column the letter “f,” or the littera dominicalis; in the third column there is the number 11, or aureus numerus; the fourth column contains the epactae. Then follow the principal moveable feasts. The fourth column determines the indictions, and the last column puts down the littera martyrologii. 1. The Littera Dominicalis or Sunday Letter. There are seven letters, one for each day of the week: a, b, c, d, e, f, g. Since the year consists of 365 days, or 52 weeks plus one day, two successive years cannot begin with the same day. The first letter (a) always falls on Jan. 1. Consequently the letter which is assigned to the first Sunday, and hence to every Sunday of the year, is the Dominical Letter. For instance, in 1929 New Year’s Day, a, fell on Tuesday. Therefore, the Dominical letter for 1929 was f. But a leap year has two letters, of which the first one rules up to Feb. 24, and the other to the end of the year. Thus, in 1928 the Sunday letters were a and g. 2. The Aureus Numerus or Golden Number. The ecclesiastical calendar needed the lunar month in order to determine the date of Easter Sunday, and therefore adopted the lunar cycle invented by Menton, a Greek astronomer (432 b.c.). He found that every 19th year the new moon falls on the same day of the month. This dis­ covery pleased the Athenians so highly that they indicated the num­ ber of the current year in golden figures, therefore called the Golden Number. To find the Golden Number, say for T929, add 1 to the date, e.g., 1929, divide the sum 1929 -J- I ΟΓ 1930 by 19; the quotient is the number of cycles elapsed (101), and the remainder (11) is the Golden Number. 3. Epactae, a word of Greek origin, signifies "dies adjecti," addi­ tional or supplementary days. These result from the difference be­ tween the lunar and the solar year. Thus, in case a new moon falls on Jan. 1, the beginning of the solar year, the lunar year would end on Dec. 20th, while the solar year would still run eleven days. CALENDAR OF THE LITURGICAL YEAR nt The moon, therefore, will be eleven days old on the first day of the following year, and twenty-two days on the first of the third year. The numbers n and 22 arc, therefore, the “epacts” of those years, respectively. The “epact” of the fourth year would be 33; but, in consequence of the insertion of the intercalary month in each third year of the lunar cycle, this “epact" is reduced to 3. In like manner the “epacts” of all the following years arc obtained by successively adding eleven to the “epact” of the former year, and rejecting thirty as often as the sum exceeds that number. The cycle of 19 years is taken as the basis and limit. If the “epact" is 30, i. e„ equal to a month, a zero or asterisk is its mark, as may be noticed in the Breviary under the year 1930 in the tabella temporaria. For the rest, all the “epacts” are noted there. 4. The Littera Martyrologii or Letter of the Martyrology indicates which luna must be read at the recital of the Martyrology. There arc thirty letters. The table of the Roman Martyrology tells us that, in order to find the luna, the Golden Number or the epact must be sought. However, the matter is simplified by the tabella temporarium festorum mobilium. For in the last column of this table the letter of the martyrology for a number of years to come is already set down. The “Ordo” also contains the number. Con­ sequently if, as in 1929, the letter is u, you will find the luna under the letter u as given for the respective day. For instance, for March 2d we read: Sexto Nonas Martii, luna vigesima prima, or seven days after the full moon. 5. All these tables, numbers, and letters, turn around the cele­ bration of Easter. Concerning this, the Council of Nicaea laid down the following rules: (a) Easter must be celebrated on a Sunday; (b) This Sunday must follow the 14th day of the paschal moon, so that if the 14th day of the paschal moon falls on Sunday, then Easter must be celebrated on the Sunday following; (c) The Pas­ chal Moon is that of which the 14th day falls on or next follows the day of the vernal equinox; (d) The equinox is invariably fixed on the 21st of March. These rules arc now fixed according to the epacts. But Easter can never come earlier than the 22nd of March, or later than the 25th of April.® 5 Encyclopedia Britannica, I· c. 112 THE DIVINE OFFICE §2. DISTINCTION AND RANK OP OFFICES The liturgical character of the Divine Office is first and above all determined by seasonal and festal Offices. Now, there are vari­ ous ranks of both seasonal and festal days which should be prop­ erly distinguished and have their own degrees. T. The seasonal office is either of the Sunday or of the feast attached to the season proper, or of the feria.6 Feasts, in the strict sense, would therefore be those festal days which have no connec­ tion with the liturgical character of the year. However, common parlance has given this term also to such, celebrations as are in­ timately connected with the liturgical season, for instance, Christmas and Easter. 2. The Breviary also has a list of preferments for the different days of the liturgical and festal year. The reasons for this prefer­ ment arc stated thus: Higher rite, primary and secondary quality, personal dignity, external solemnity.7 But these reasons may over­ lap, as is clearly perceived in the table of the rank of feasts assigned in the Breviary. The distinction is as follows: I. Dominicae majores or major Sundays, which arc again divided into those of the first and those of the second class. First-class Sun­ days are: the first Sunday in Advent, the four Sundays of Lent, Passion Sunday, Palm Sunday, Easter Sunday, Low Sunday, and Whitsunday. Second-class Sundays are: the second, third and fourth Sundays of Advent, Septuagesima, Sexagesima, Quinquagesima. All other Sundays arc minor or ordinary Sundays. The so-called major Ferial Days arc divided into three orders: of the First Order arc: Ash Wednesday, and Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday of Holy Week. Of the Second Order are: the Ember Days of Advent, the Ferial Days of Lent, the Ember Days of Sep­ tember, the Monday of the Rogation Days. Of the Third Order arc: Ferial Days of Advent, and those after Septuagesima. The Privileged Vigils of the first class are those of Christmas and Pente­ cost. The only one of the second class is the vigil of Epiphany. 6 Feriae. in classical Latin, means days of rest or holidays; in ecclesiastical language the word indicates the seven days of the week; in the liturgical sense it means weekdays, not holydays or Sundays· 7 Rubricae ex “Divino afflatu," tit. I, n. 1. DISTINCTION AND RANK OF OFFICES 113 II. Feasts are divided into classes (primary and secondary), doubles, semidoubles, and simples. Primary Doubles of the First Class arc: Christmas, Epiphany, Easter with the three days preceding and the two days following it, Ascension, Pentecost and the two following days, Trinity Sunday, Corpus Christi, Sacred Heart,8 Jesus Christ the King,0 Immaculate Conception, Annunciation, Assumption, Nativity of St. John the Baptist, Feast and Solemnity of St. Joseph, SS. Peter and Paul, All Saints’ Day, the dedication of a church and its anniversary, the anniversary of the dedication of the cathedral church, the titular feast of a church, the titular feast of the cathedral church, the pa­ tronal feast of a town, city, diocese, province or nation, the feast of the founder of a religious order or congregation. Primary Doubles of the Second Class arc: Circumcision (New Year’s Day), Transfiguration, Dedication of the Latcran Church, Purification, Visitation, Nativity of the B.V.M., St. Michael's Day, the feastdays of the other eleven Apostles, St. Mark’s, Sr. Luke’s, St. Stephen’s, Holy Innocents, St. Lawrence’, St. Joachim's, St. Ann's. Secondary Doubles of the Second Class are: Feast of the Holy Name of Jesus, Invention of the Holy Cross, Precious Blood, Seven Sorrows (Sept.), Holy Rosary. Primary Major Doubles: Octave of each primary feast of the first class, Dedication of SS. Peter and Paul’s, Dedication of S. Maria Maggiore, Presentation of the B.V.M., Guardian Angels, Decolla­ tion of St. John the Baptist, St. Barnabas, St. Benedict, St. Dominic, St. Francis of Assisi, St. Francis Xavier, Feasts of the minor pa­ trons. Secondary Major Doubles: the Octave of each secondary feast of the first class, Exaltation of the Holy Cross, Seven Sorrows (in Lent), Apparition of the Imm. Cone, at Lourdes, Scapular of Mt. Carmel, Holy Name of Mary, Ransom feast of the B.V.M., Appari­ tion of St. Michael the Archangel, Chair of St. Peter at Rome and Antioch, Chains of St. Peter, Conversion of St. Paul, Commemora­ tion of St. Paul, St. John’s before the Latin Gate. ®S.R.C., Jan. 29, 1929 (A. Ap. S.. XXI. 27). »S.R.C., Dec. 12, 1925 (A. Ap. S„ XVII, 668). 114 THE DIVINE OFFICE Doubles or Semidoubles o£ primary rank are: the octave of any primary double of the second class, all the feast-days or quasi­ feast-days of Sainis. Secondary Doubles or Semi-doubles arc: the octave of each sec­ ondary feast of the second class, the Stigmata of St. Francis, In­ vention of St. Stephen’s Relics, all the feasts of the Lord or of the B.V.M. celebrated under a special title, or of Saints, besides their proper day, as for instance, of invention, transfer, patronage. Simple feasts, for instance, S. Maria in Sabbato, arc not enumer­ ated.10 As to the historical foundation of this gradation, it may be said that it is not entirely new, although additional ranking is clearly perceptible. The main reason for distinguishing the rank of a feast, of course, lies in the personal dignity. Therefore the feasts of our Lord hold the first rank, and among these the feasts the object of which presents our Redemption, lake the first place. Thus Easter and Christmas are the highest in rank. After these follow the feasts of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Angels, St. John the Baptist, St. Joseph, the Apostles, the Evangelists.” It is said, not without reason, that in ancient times only two classes of offices were dis­ tinguished, viz., festal and ferial.12 The difference between duplex and simplex is of venerable age. For on a higher feast which fell on a weekday two offices were sung, as we learn from Amalarius of Metz, or at least double Matins and Lauds.13 Whether this ex­ planation is the true one is, however, controverted. Other authors maintain that the duplication of the antiphons is the distinctive reason.14 Be that as it may, St. Pius V established three classes of double feasts: (i) first class, (2) second class, and (3) simply double. Clement VIII inserted a fourth one, viz., the duplex maius between (2) and (3), and raised some feasts from the rank of simple to that of semidouble, for instance, the feast of St. Polycarp.15 This ranking of dignity has caused complications in the rubrics 10 The new Monastic Breviary has a memoria which is less than simplex. 11 Rubrics in "Divino afflatu," tit. II» n. i. 12 Piacenza (who is the author of the reform of the Breviary as prescribed by Pius X), apud Vcncroni, /. c., Vol. II, p. 63. 13 De ordine anfiphonarii, cap. 15. 14 See Baumer» I. c., p. 340; Vcncroni» I. c., p. 63; The Clergy Review» 1931» pp. 151 fl. 16 Baumer» /. c., p. 499. DISTINCTION AND RANK OF OFFICES 115 or rules according to which these feasts arc to be celebrated. Two main features may be considered in the relation of one feast to an­ other: two or more offices may fall on the same day, or one feast may follow another immediately. In the first case there is occur­ rence, or a clashing of two offices on the same day; in the second case there is concurrence, or a clashing of two offices, one of which follows the other immediately, so that the second Vespers of the preceding feast runs a race with the first Vespers of the immedi­ ately following one. The occurrence of feasts may be either inclu­ sive or exclusive. It is inclusive when the major feast predominates and the other feast is simply commemorated. It is exclusive when a transfer of one of the occurring feasts is required. This transfer may be perpetual or accidental. A perpetual transfer must be made in the case of a particular or local feast coinciding with a feast of the universal Church. Thus if the titular feast or the patron (founder’s) feast of a religious order occurs on the same day as a feast of the same rank celebrated by the whole Church, the latter prevails. The transfer is accidental when a feast in a certain year falls on a day assigned by the Calendar of movable feasts to the same day: for instance, in 1929 the Annunciation fell within Holy Week, and was therefore transferred to the Monday after Low Sunday.16 The various editions of the Roman Breviary since 1912 have tables for occurrence and concurrence of feasts. The edition of 1923 has the following A. Table of Occurrence To explain this table, we find ten different kinds of ranking of­ fices in the column placed perpendicularly, viz., double of first and double of second class. Then, put in a vertical row, we observe 17 col­ umns of numbers. These numbers refer to the rules laid down below the lowest ranking feasts, viz., immediately below the simplex. Be­ low the numbers we see 17 differently classed feasts. Now read, for instance: if a feast of the first class double occurs on the same day with a Sunday of the first class (si occurrat eodem die duplex I classis et Dominica I elassis'), you have to look up the last number 10 Sec Vcncroni, Z. c.t II, p. 115 f. n6 THE DIVINE OFFICE to your right in the last perpendicular column and the first vertical column of numbers. There you will find n. 6. In the rules placed immediately below “Simplex” we find: officium de 2, translatio de 1; viz., the Sunday office is preferred and the first-class double is transferred. There arc also some zeros (0) to be noticed, for instance, the vigilia communis clashes with a common Sunday or the Vigil of Epiphany. This zero means that no occurrence is possible, nor con­ currence either, for that matter. With regard to the precedence of offices a new table has been published in the edition of the Roman Breviary of 1923 as follows: 1. Sundays of the First Class. 2. Primary Feasts of the First Class of Double Rite throughout the Church universal. 3. The Circumcision of our Lord—Ash Wednesday—all the Ferial Days of Holy Week—the Days within the Octaves of Easter and Pentecost—the Vigils of Christmas and Pentecost. 4. The Octave Day of an Octave of the Second Rank. The foregoing Privileged Offices never yield precedence to other Offices. 5. The Dedication and Titular Feast of one’s own church—the Principal Patron of a place—the Titular Feast and the Feast of the Holy Founder of the Order or Religious Congregation. 6. Other Feasts, if there be any, which are Primary of the Double Rite of the First Class for the place. 7. Feasts which are Secondary of Double Rite of the First Class for the place. 8. Sundays of the Second Class. 9. The Days within the Octaves of the Second Rank. 10. Feasts that are of the Second Class Double Rite. 11. Feasts of our Lord of Major Double Rite. 12. Minor Sundays and the Vigil of Epiphany. 13. The Octave Day of an Octave of the Third Rank, or of a Common Octave, which is of Major Double Rite. 14. Feasts of Major Double Rite which arc not of our Lord. 15. Feasts of Minor Double Rite. DISTINCTION AND RANK OF OFFICES 117 16. Feasts of Semi-double Rite. 17. The Days within the Octaves of Christmas or Ascension. 18. The Days within Common Octaves. 19. The Major Ferial Days and Vigils. 20. The Octave Day of a Simple Octave, i. e., of a Feast of the Second Class. 21. The Saturday Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary. 22. Feasts of Simple Rite. Accidental Occurrence and Transfer of Feasts The Rubrics of the “Divino afflatu” state the rules which deter­ mine rank and transfer, according to rite, primary and secondary quality, personal dignity, external solemnity, the quality of proper of a feast. A feast is said to be proper to a place when it is the titular or patron feast of a church, or of a Saint whose body or any notable authentic relic is preserved in that place or church. Then the rules arc assigned thus (title III) : 1. Major Sundays of the First Class, whatever Feast may occur on them, always retain their Office; Sundays of the Second Class give way only to Double Feasts of the First Class, in which case the Commemoration of the Sunday is made in Vespers, Lauds, and Mass, together with the ninth Lesson at Matins. 2. On Minor Sundays, or ordinary Sundays throughout the year, the office of the day is always to be said, unless there occurs a feast of Our Lord, or a Double of the First or Second Class, or an Oc­ tave Day of a Feast of Our Lord, in which case Commemoration is made in the office of the Feast or Octave-Day of the Sunday in Vespers, Lauds, and Mass, with the ninth Lesson at Matins. If the Sunday within the Octave of the Nativity occurs on the Feast of St. Thomas, B. and M., or on the Feast of St. Sylvester, B. and C., the office of the Sunday is said with the commemoration of the occurring Feast; in which case on Dec. 30, in the Office of the day within the Octave, the Lessons of the First and Second Noc­ turn are taken from the Feast of the Nativity, with the Responsorics n8 THE DIVINE OFFICE of the Sunday. With regard to the Sunday which fails between the Feast of the Circumcision and the Epiphany no change is to be made. 3. Doubles of the First and Second Class, which are hindered by some Major Sunday or by some higher Office, arc to be transferred to the nearest following day which is not itself a Double Feast of the First or Second Class, or an Office excluding such a Feast, saving however the privilege conceded by the rubrics to the Feasts of the Purification and Annunciation of the B.VJM., and of the Solemn Commemoration of St. Joseph. 4. Double Major Feasts of whatever dignity, and Double Minor Feasts of Doctors of the Church, can no longer be transferred. When they are hindered, Commemoration is made of them, as lhe Rubrics prescribe for other hindered Double Minor Feasts (with due regard to what is laid down in lhe following paragraph con­ cerning the omission on Sundays of the ninth historical Lesson), unless they happen to occur on Doubles of the First Class, in which Commemoration is to be made of no Office, except that of the occurring Sunday, or Ferial, or of a Privileged Octave. 5. If on a Major Sunday there occurs a Major Double or Minor Office, or a Semi-double or Simple, the Office of the Sunday is to be said and Commemoration made of lhe occurring Office in both Vespers (but only in First Vespers for a Simple Feast), Lauds, and Mass, without the ninth historical Lesson. So also the Sunday Office is to be said on Minor Sundays, unless there occurs on them any Feast of our Lord, or any Double of lhe First or Second Class, or the Octave Day of a Feast of our Lord, in which case, as has been said above in no. 1, the Office is to be of the Feast or of the Octavc-Day, with the Commemoration and ninth Lesson of the Sunday. 6. The day on which lhe Commemoration of all lhe Faithful Deparied is celebrated, excludes the translation of any feast what­ ever. Perpetual Occurrence and Transfer of Feasts arc determined in title IV of the Code as follows: I. All Double Feasts, Major or Minor, or Semi-doubles, which DISTINCTION AND RANK OF OFFICES 119 are perpetually hindered, arc transferred to the first free day, ac­ cording to the rubrics. 2. Double Feasts of the First and Second Class, perpetually hindered, arc transferred as to their proper place, to the first day free from another Double Feast of the First or Second Class, or from any Octavc-Day, or from Offices excluding Feasts of this kind, saving the privilege conceded to the Feast of the Purification of the B. V. Mary. 3. Major Sundays exclude lhe perpetual assignment of any Double Feast even of the First Class: Minor Sundays exclude the assignment of any Major or Minor Double, except it be a Feast of Our Lord. The Feast of the Holy Name of Mary is perpetually assigned to September 12. 4. November the second excludes both occurring Feasts which arc not Doubles of the First Class and perpetually transferred Feasts of whatever rank. B. Tabic of Concurrence This table needs no further explanation. Note, however, that only eleven numbers are placed in the vertical column, and only five rules that regulate the concurrence. The order of precedence of Feasts in Concurrence is as follows: 1. All Primary Feasts of Double Rite of die First Class in the Church universal. 2. The Dedication and Titular Feast of one’s own church; the Principal Patron of the place; the Titular Feast, and the Feast of the Holy Founder of an Order or Religious Congregation. 3. All other Feasts of Double Rite of the First Class. 4. All the Feasts of Double Rite of the Second Class. 5. The Major Sundays. 6. Those Feasts of Our Lord which arc of Major Double Rite. 7. The Minor Sundays. 8. Those Octave-Days which arc of Major Double Rite. 9. Feasts, not of Our Lord, which are of Major Double Rite. 10. Feasts of Minor Double Rank. 11. Feasts of Semi-Double Rite. 120 THE DIVINE OFFICE 12. Days during the Octaves of the Third Rank and during Common Octaves. 13. The Major Ferial Days. 14. The Oclave-Day of Simple Octaves. 15. Feasts and other days of Simple Rite. The “Divino afflatu" lays down the general rules for concurrence as follows: 1. Major Sundays have integral Vespers in concurrence with any Feast whatsoever, unless it be a Double of the First or Second Class. Therefore, in die First Vespers the Antiphons with the Psalms arc taken from the Saturday; but in Advent the Antiphons arc taken from the Sunday Lauds with the Saturday Psalms. 2. Minor Sundays cede Vespers to Doubles of the First and Sec­ ond Class, to all Feasts of Our Lord; they have, however, integral Vespers when in concurrence with other Feasts, the ?\ntiphons and Psalms for First Vespers being taken from Saturday. 3. The rules regulating Vespers within the Octave of the Na­ tivity of Our Lord remain unchanged. §3. Commemorations and Octaves Up to about the sixth century the number of feasts was quite limited. But when their number greatly increased, especially after the eighth century, a distinction between higher and lower feasts, or rather the mode of celebrating them, was introduced. Most of them were merely mentioned in the Martyrology at Prime. Others were commemorated with a short prayer in Vespers or Matins.17 Hence, the so-called commemorations. Octaves are of ancient date, being mentioned among the most celebrated feasts of the Jews, such as the Passover, the Feast of the Tabernacles, and that of the Dedication of the Temple. But rest from work or full celebration was prescribed only on the first and eighth days.18 The Christian liturgy, too, confined the Octaves to more solemn feasts, such as Easier and Pentecost, while the Octaves of Apostles and other Saints were added only in the eighth ccn17 Baumer, I. c., p. 442. 18 Lev. 23, 35 ff,; 2 Chron. 29, 17; John 10; cfr. Sciscnbcrger, Practical *Handbook for the Study of the Bible, 1911» PP· *4^ tf. COMMEMORATIONS AND OCTAVES ill tury. Besides, for centuries, only the first and last days were real liturgical days, while on the intermediary days no mention of the feast was made.10 Under the Franciscan influence the number of octaves grew so that Pope St. Pius V found it necessary to reduce their number. He also classified the octaves into (a) those of our Lord, and (b) those of the Saints, and the Dedication. Easter and Pentecost were specially privileged, while Christmas, Epiphany, and Corpus Christi were simply privileged. Then followed the octaves of the Sainis. No octaves were allowed during Lent. The feast of the Immaculate Conception had no octave because it was celebrated during Advent; neither the Visitation for the reason that it fell within the octave of SS. Peter and Paul.20 These were sane rules. Now-a-days a tendency to increase octaves and their rank is very conspicuous. Concerning Commemorations, the “Divino afflatu” (title VI) sets forth the following rules: 1. On Doubles of (he First Class, Commemoration of the preced­ ing Office is not made, unless the latter be Sunday, even per an­ num, or a Double of the First or Second Class, or the Octavc-Day of some Primary Feast of Our Lord, or a day within a Privi­ leged Octave, or a Major Ferial. In occurring offices, Commemora­ tion is made only of the Sunday, of whatever rite it may be, of a Privileged Octave, or a Major Ferial. Of the following Office (even when celebrated as a Simple) Commemoration is always to be made, but not of a day within a non-privileged Octave or of a Simple. 2. In Doubles of the Second Class, Commemoration is always to be made of the preceding Office, unless this be of a semi-double feast or of a day within a non-privileged Octave. In cases of occur­ rence, Commemoration is made of every Sunday, or every Double or Semi-Double reduced to a Simple, of a privileged Octave, of a Major Ferial, or of a Vigil; but of a Simple, Commemoration is made only at Lauds and in private Masses. But of any following Office, even a Simple or reduced to a Simple, Commemoration is invariably made; as likewise a day within an Octave when its 10 Vcncroni, I. c„ pp. 76 f. 2i> Baumer, I. r., pp. 443 f. 122 THE DIVINE OFFICE Office occurs on the following day; with ?\ntiphon and Versicle and First Vespers of the Feast. 3. Whilst Feasts of Our Lord with their Octaves prevail over Minor occurring Sundays, the following order of Commemorations is to be observed whenever there arc several of them, in Vespers, Lauds, and Mass (the first commemoration at Vespers being always that of the concurring Office, whatever its rite or dignity) : (1) Commemoration of the Sunday; (2) of the Day within the Octave of Epiphany or Corpus Christi; (3) of an Octave Day; (4) of a Major Double; (5) of a Minor Double; (6) of a Semi-Double; (7) of a Day within a Common Octave; (8) of the Friday after the Octave of the Ascension; (9) of a Major Ferial; (10) of a Vigil; (11) of a Simple. Concerning Octaves the latest rules appear to be: 1. Privileged Octaves of the First Ran/( arc: The Octaves of Easter and Pentecost. The Office of these Octaves does not yield precedence to any Feast whatever. These Octaves terminate after None on the Saturday following the Feast. 2. Privileged Octaves of the Second Ranf^ arc: the Octaves of Epiphany and Corpus Christi. On the days within these Octaves only a Feast of the First Class may be celebrated; on the OctaveDay itself no Feast whatever is admitted. An exception is made in favor of the Feasts of St. John the Baptist and the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul, as being Primary Feasts of the First Class of Double Rite in the Universal Church. If either of these Feasts occur on the Octave-Da y of Corpus Christi, the Office of the Feast is said and a Commemoration is made of the Octave. 3. Privileged Octaves of the Third Rani{ are: the Octaves of Christmas, Ascension, and the Feast of the Sacred Heart. On the days within these Octaves no Office of Simple Rite can be cele­ brated: and on the Octave-Day itself all Offices of Major Double or Minor Double arc excluded, and only a commemoration of them is made. The Friday following the Octave of the Ascension en­ joys the same privilege as the days within the preceding Octave. However, the Office of the day within the Octave of another Feast is admitted, and if a feast of the First or Second Class occurs, the Commemoration of this Friday is omitted. COMMEMORATIONS AND OCTAVES 123 4. Common Octaves are: the Octaves of all other Feasts of die First Class, even of Our Lord, throughout the year. On the days within these Octaves no Office of Simple Rite may be celebrated; and on the Octavc-Day itself all Offices of Major Double or Minor Double Rite arc excluded, and only a Commemoration of them is made. 5. The Octave Day of the Feasts mentioned in 2, 3, and 4, is celebrated as of Major Double Rite. 6. During the privileged Octaves of the Three Ranks, the Office is said every day as on the Feast itself. 7. During the common Octaves, and on the Octave-Day itself, the Office is said as on Feasts of Semidouble or Double Rite throughout the year, ;. e„ the Antiphons and Psalms arc to be taken from the corresponding day in the Psalter. 8. Simple Octaves arc: the Octaves of Feasts of the Second Class. These Octaves are neither celebrated nor commemorated within the Octave; only on the Octavc-Day itself the Office is of Simple Rite and excludes the Saturday Office of the B. V. Mary, but admits the commemoration of an occurring Feast of Simple Rite. Concerning the conclusion of hymns and the proper verse at Prime, the suffrages of Saints, the preces, the Athanasian Creed, and the third Oration at Mass, note: 1. When on the same day there occur several Offices which have a proper conclusion of the hymns or a proper verse at Prime, the conclusion and verse to be said are those which are proper to the Office recited on that day. 2. Henceforth, when the suffrages of the Saints should be said, only one is to be recited according to the formula proposed in the Ordinary of the new Psaltery. 3. The Athanasian Creed is added at Prime on the Feast of the Holy Trinity and on the Sundays after Epiphany and Pentecost, when the Office of these is to be followed, save: 4. On a Sunday when commemoration is made of any Double Office, or of an Octave Day, or of a day within an Octave; then the Suffrages, prayers, symbol “Quicumque" and the third Ora­ tion in the Mass are omitted. T 24 THE DIVINE OFFICE §4. Votive and Additional Offices 1. Since by the new disposition of the Psaltery the causes of the General Induit of July 5, 1883, for Votive Offices arc abolished, these and other similar Offices granted by special induits are no longer to be recited. 2. The obligation of reciting in choir, on the days hitherto pre­ scribed, the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Office of the Dead, and the Gradual and Penitential Psalms ceases. But Chapters which are under obligation to recite these additional Of­ fices by reason of some special constitution or legal prescription, must ask the Holy Sec for a commutation. 3. On the Feast of St. Mark, and on the Rogation Days, the obligation of reciting the Litany of the Saints, even out of choir, remains. § 5. Feasts of Dedication and of the Title of the Church and of the Patrons Ancient documents, as will be seen later on,21 testify to the solem­ nity of the dedication of churches. However no ritual and Office proper can be found in the documents for several centuries there­ after.22 The Gclasian Sacrameniary contains the prayers for the consecration of a basilica and two Mass formularies for the dedica­ tion with a special Infra Actionem.23 Patrons or localized feasts of prominent Saints, especially of bishops and martyrs, were celebrated at least as early as the fifth century.24 This was also an ancient custom, since the Synagogue had its “angeli tutelares” and the pagans their “dii tutelares.” When the Roman Breviary was reformed by St. Pius V, many dioceses and religious Orders asked for approbation of their local or com­ munity Saints or Patrons. This demand was easily granted, pro­ vided the character of these proper feasts did not differ too much 21 See Title V; pp. 430 f. 22 Duchesne-McClurc, /. c.t p. 570. 23 Ed. Wilson. I. c., pp. 133 fl. 24 Baumer. /. c.f p. 190. DEDICATION AND TITLE 125 from the Roman Breviary concerning legends, antiphons, hymns, responsories, and orations.25 With regard to the Office and Feast of dedication, the Code and rubrics lay down the following rules: 1. Dedication implies either a solemn consecration or a solemn blessing, which must be performed before divine service may be held in a new church?'® 2. The Feast of the consecration of a church is to be celebrated annually according to the rubrics?7 If a doubt remain as to the fact of consecration, the anniversary of dedication may not be cele­ brated. If, however, the fact is certain and the day alone uncertain, the bishop is allowed to fix a day for the anniversary?8 3. The rubrics prescribe: (a) that the feast of dedication is a pri­ mary feast and “Festum Domini”; (b) that the anniversary must be celebrated as a Feast of the First Class with Octave throughout the diocese by the secular and religious clergy, if the latter follow the diocesan calendar; if they have their own calendar they must celebrate the anniversary of the dedication of the cathedral as a feast of the First Class without Octave; (c) that the anniversary must be celebrated on the day proper, and not transferred to a Sunday; (d) that the anniversary of the dedication of the cathedral must be celebrated separately from the dedication of all rhe churches of the diocese; for the latter feast a day may be designated by the Ordinary; (c) that the same rule must be observed by religious Orders or congregations with regard to the celebration of the dedication of all the churches of their institute; (f) that the feast of the dedication of all the churches of a diocese (or institute) must be understood in the sense that each church celebrates its own dedication. 4. Concerning the title of a church the Code rules: 29 a) Each consecrated or blessed church must have its own title, which cannot be changed after the dedication. ibid., p. 365 f. 26 Can. 1165, $ i. 27 Can. 11672®S.R.C., Aug. 18, 1629, ad I (nn. 511, 515). 29Can. x 168» i and 3. 120 THE DIVINE OFFICE Title (titulus') is the name by which a church is known and distinguished from other churches. It is not unlike the name given in Baptism. If the name is that of a person, this person is called the patron of the church, provided he or she be a Saint, for patron signifies advocate, which does not apply to a Divine Person. Titles of churches may be: the Blessed Trinity or one of the Three Divine Persons, Jesus Christ or one of the Biblical mys­ teries, the Blessed Virgin Mary or any one of her special attributes, the angels or saints or some conspicuous event in their lives, as, for instance, the Conversion of St. Paul. When two saints arc chosen as patrons for one church, they are generally taken "per modum unius,” e. g., SS. Philip and James. But if at the dedication two different saints arc chosen "divisim,” they are celebrated on their respective days. Sometimes it happens that a secondary title or patron is added from a church that has been abandoned or destroyed. The text says that the title cannot be changed; being chosen at the laying of the corner-stone and made stable or perpetual at the dedication, it is a distinctive and permanent attribute of the church. Hence it has been more than once decided that rhe bishop cannot change the original title, but an apostolic induit is required for the purpose. If the Holy Sec adds the title of an abandoned church to that of another, the title thus added is a secondary one. b) Without an Apostolic induit churches cannot be dedicated to a Beatus, viz., one who is beatified, but not yet canonized by a formal decree of the Holy Sec. In the case of such as have been venerated as saints by a constant tradition before the time of Alex­ ander III (1159-1181), public veneration takes the place of a formal decree of the Apostolic Sec, and they may therefore be chosen as patrons for churches. 5. The Code furthermore prescribes 30 that the titular feast is to be celebrated annually according to the rubrics. The chief rules as to that arc the following: a) The Titular Feast of the cathedral church must be celebrated with octave by the whole clergy of the diocese, including those religious who follow the diocesan calendar. Regulars (not religious 30 Can. xi68, § 2. DEDICATION AND TITLE 127 who have no calendar of their own) must observe the Feast as one of the First Class, but without Octave, if they have their own calen­ dar. This celebration includes Office and Mass. b) The church whose clergy is obliged to observe the Feast is any consecrated or blessed church or any oratory, whether public or semipublic, which is cither consecrated or solemnly blessed; likewise, episcopal chapels, oratories, or seminaries, hospital chapels, and chapels of religious houses, etc. c) The clergy obliged to say the Office and Mass of the Titular Feast arc: the pastor and his assistants; missionaries assigned to several missions, but residing at one, are bound only to the Feast of their residential church. Rectors, seminary professors, and stu­ dents who live in the seminary, must recite the Office of the sem­ inary church. A pastor who holds two parishes must recite the Office with octave of the titular of both churches. (S.R.C., April 27, 1929; A. Ap. S., XXI, 321). d) Regulars must celebrate the Feast of their own church; but if they merely live in a house adjoining a church which they do not own, they arc not allowed to recite the Office of that church. Λ religious community in charge of a public church must recite the Office of the Titular Feast of that church, with octave. e) Chaplains of Sisters arc not bound to say the Office of the Titular Feast of the chapel which they serve. f) The bishop must recite the Office of the Titular Feast of the cathedral church, and if he has two bishoprics united “aeque princi­ paliter," he has to recite the Office of both cathedral churches, pro­ vided they have different titles. If a church is simply called “St. Mary’s,” the proper title is the Assumption; “Our Saviour’s” is celebrated on the Feast of the Transfiguration. 6. Although the title and patron may sometimes be one and the same saint, yet patron, in the proper sense, is the saint chosen by the people of the province, diocese, parish, or nation as their special protector. Only a saint, not a “beatus" vevx-j be chosen, and the choice must be ratified by the Holy Sec.31 Concerning the celebra­ tion of the feast of the principal Patron of a town, city, diocese, 31 Can. 1278; cir. our Commentary * Vol. VI» p. 240 f. 128 THE DIVINE OFFICE province, or nation, the new rubrics say that it shall be celebrated as a Double of the First Class with octave, by all the clergy, secular and religious, who live therein and use the diocesan calendar; die regulars who use their own calendar shall celebrate the feast under die same rite, but without an octave, never “feriatum.” 7. If die office of the titular or patron is not contained in the Roman Breviary, the whole office of the “Commune Sanctorum” (martyrs, confessors, etc., as the case requires) is to be recited.32 If the commune has one or two kinds of lessons, the choice is de­ termined by the third Nocturn.33 §6. Vigils The Matins were called Vigils (vigiliae) and celebrated at night, as the night was distributed into four watches for the soldiery. But in course of time another meaning was attached to the term, viz., that of profestae, which were celebrated before the higher feasts of Our Lord and of the Saints. At Tours, for instance, there were fifteen Vigils.34 The nocturnal service, on account of abuses, was later transferred to the daytime. Vigil, therefore, means a preparatory celebration, in an abbreviated form, of a coming high feast. There arc privileged and non-privileged Vigils. Of the privileged Vigils, two are of the First Class—the one before Christmas and the one before Pentecost. These Vigils exclude the celebration of any other feast. A special characteristic of the Christmas Vigil con­ sists in this that from Lauds on (inclusively) the Office is celebrated like a feast of Double Rite (ritu duplici). The Vigil of Epiphany is a privileged one of the Second Class, on which only Offices of the First or Second Class, should they occur, may be celebrated. No other Vigils arc privileged. 88S.R.C., Apr. 16. 1886, ad I (n. 3661). 33 Vcncroni, I. c., p. 91 ; Wüst-Mullancy, /. c., n. 726 if. 84 Baumer, I. c., p. 159. Chapter III COMPOSITION OF THE DIVINE OFFICE In the composition of the Divine Office we may consider either the form or the matter. Formally it is nothing else but the Office distributed according to the ancient division of the day into matins, lauds, the four little hours, vespers and compline. Sometimes all these eight components arc called canonical hours; sometimes matins is separately considered and the rest of the Office is styled canonical hours. However, considering the fact that the Patristic age named the Divine Office canon, synaxis, ecclesiastical office, canonical pray­ ers, cursus,1 it is quite consistent to call the entire Divine Office canonical hours, because the time for reciting it is regulated by ecclesiastical canons or rules.2 The matter of the Office consists in the différent psalms, lessons, hymns, etc., which constitute the various canonical hours. § i. Matins Matins (formerly vigiliae) is derived from "matula," i.e., the last night-watch before sunrise. To this first official prayer may be applied the words of Wisdom: “While all things were in quiet silence, and the night was in the midst of her course, Thy almighty Word (Logos) leapt down from the royal throne in Heaven.3 In the silence of the night or dawn the Lord arose from the tomb. 1 Baumer, /. c.9 p. i f. 3 Vcncroni, /. c.t Π, p. 17. 8 Wisd. XV111, 14 f.; sec Die Betende Kirche, p. 248. 129 THE DIVINE OFFICE Jacob wrestled all night with lhe angel until he received the bless­ ing of God’s messenger.· * First the “Pater noster,” “Ave Maria,” and “Credo,” with the “Deus in adjutorium” and the threefold “Domine, labia mca aperies” are recited. Then follows the invitatory, preceded and ac­ companied by a short verse, which latter is determined by the char­ acter of the Feast, or taken (on ferial days) from the invitatory Psalm (94). This invitatorium is omitted from the Office of the last three days of Holy Week, and in the Office for the Dead, as a sign of sadness and grief. In the Roman Breviary the invitatorium ap­ pears as lhe first Psalm of the third nocturn on the Feast of the Epiphany.5 Then a hymn is added, which more or less expresses lhe main idea of the invitatory. The Psalms are now introduced as matter for meditation, what­ ever the mystery or character of lhe feast may be. On Sundays and feast-days of at least semi-double rite three Psalms arc recited for each nocturn.6 Three lessons accompany each nocturn on the days named, while for the Office of three lessons these latter are recited only after the third nocturn. Each lesson is preceded by the abso­ lution and blessing and concluded by the “Tu autem.” Only the lessons for the three days of Holy Week and those of the Office for the Dead have no such preceding and subsequent prayers. After each lesson a responsorium prolixum or longer rcsponsory is added, except after lhe last lesson, when the “To Dcum” is re­ cited. After the “Te Dcum” follow the Lauds without any further addition.7 § 2. Lauds The Lauds recall the ancient morning sacrifice of the Chosen People, and exhort the representatives of the faithful to praise the * Gen. XXXII, 24 fl. ft The monastic Office leaves it in its proper place at the beginning. « The monastic Office has six Psalms for the first two nocturns and three short canticles (or rather sections of a canticle) for the third nocturn. 7 The monastic Office prescribes that» after the “Tc Deum” (which is recited only in the offices which have three nocturns) the Gospel of the Feast, the "Te decet Jaus,” the “Dominus vobiscum,” and the oration be added. COMPOSITION OF THE DIVINE OFFICE 131 Creator of the universe, and in the “Benedictus” to greet the com­ ing Saviour (“Oriens ex alto"). It consists of four Psalms and a canticle, preceded by the usual introductory prayers. There are two sets of Psalms and canticles according to the rubrics of the “Psalterium Breviarii Romani." After the Psalms, each one of which has an antiphon, follow: the capitulum, or short lesson from Holy Writ, the hymn, the vcrsicle, the antiphon, the “Benedictus,” the Sunday or ferial prayers, if the rubrics demand their recitation, the “Dominus vobiscum,” the oration, the commemorations (if re­ quired), the suffragium, and the usual conclusion.89 §3. The Four Little Hours 1. The Prime is a consecratory prayer, a supplication for material and spiritual assistance, as pithily expressed in the hymn. After lhe “Pater,” “Ave,” “Credo,” “Deus in adjutorium,” and lhe hymn, the beginning of an antiphon is recited and three Psalms, differ­ ing for each day of the week, are read. Then a capitulum and responsory are added, followed by diverse prayers, the “confessio,” absolution, and oration. In choir, the Martyrology is read and some prayers arc recited, followed by the “lectio brevis.” It is concluded by the blessing? 2. Tierce reminds the faithful of the coming of the Holy Ghost on Pentecost Day, of the fearless profession of faith, and of sincere charity. After the usual introduction (Pater, Ave, etc.) the hymn expresses the ideas mentioned. zXn antiphon is started and three Psalms or sections of Psalms arc recited, which conclude with the full antiphon. Then arc recited a “lectio brevis,” a responsory, and, if the rubrics demand it, lhe preces, or if the preces arc not 8 The monastic Office has a somewhat different arrangement: Psalm 66 is recited as introduction without antiphon; then three Psalms with their antiphons, canticle with antiphon. Psalms 148, 149, 150 with one antiphon; capitulum, responsorium breve, hymn, versidc, antiphon, Benedictus, Pater nosier (aloud), oration, commemora­ tions. suffragium (if required), but no preces. 9 The monastic Office has no prayers, properly so-called, but credo, confessio and absolutio, four sections of Ps. 118 on Sundays, no responsorium breve, but adds after the blessing the commemoration for the dead the Psalm ”Dc profundis" .and the oration “Deus veniae largitor.” 132 THE DIVINE OFFICE required, the “Dominus vobiscum” and prayer follow immediately after the responsory.10 3. Sext is the hour when our Lord ascended the cross. It is sup­ posed to be recited at noon, when the sun stands high, and the soul prays for a cooling breeze for body and soul, and for peace. The sequence and composition are the same as in Tierce. 4. None marks the hour when Christ died on the cross to gain eternal life for us. What was said concerning the make-up of the other Little Hours also holds for None. §4. Vespers Vespers indicates the evening star, the setting of the “sun of justice,” the completion of the creation and the Redemption. The creative idea is very aptly expressed in the hymns of the Sunday and weekdays which follow each other according to the hexaemeron. Redemption is the keynote of the “Magnificat.” The evening serv­ ice is alluded to in the versicle “Dirigatur,” the incense offering signifies a prayer of thanksgiving or of praise, according to St. Basil.11 The office of Vespers consists of the introductory prayers, five psalms, capitulum, hymn, versicle, “Magnificat” with antiphon, oration of the day, and a commemoration (if prescribed). The preces, if prescribed by the rubrics, are to be said immediately after the antiphon of the Magnificat.12 Vespers was originally sung from a little after the ninth hour (3 p. μ.) until sunset. At Jerusalem it was sung about the tenth hour (4 p. μ.) when Etheria (or Silvia) visited the Holy Land in the year 385-386. St. Benedict prescribed that Vespers should be sung at dusk.13 A rather quaint custom is to recite Vespers in choir before noon during the Lenten season (except Sundays). The underlying idea is that the people were supposed to fast until after Vespers, but in order not to make them wait too long, Vespers 20 The monastic Office has three sections of Ps. 118 for the Tierce, Sext, and None on Monday, the same Psalms from Tuesday to Saturday, viz., Ps. 119 to 127, but no responsory. >1 Regula, c. 7; Vencroni, /. e.,p. 161. 22 The monastic Office has four Psalms, a brief responsory after the chapter, the suffragium after the oration, and commemorations, if required, but no preces. 13 ‘’Cum luce fiant omnia,” Regula, c. qr; Baumer, /. c., pp. 20, 34, 107. MATERIAL COMPOSITION OF THE DIVINE OFFICE 133 was anticipated, viz., sung before noon. The S.R.C. has insisted upon this rubric for the Feast of St. Joseph (March 19), even if greater devotion could be had by celebrating it in,the afternoon.14 §5. Compline Compline {completorium) was formally introduced by St. Bene­ dict. It is the crown and complement of the entire Office, the official evening prayer of the Church, by which she consecrates the night’s repose to God and asks for protection against the assaults of the tempter.10 It commences with “Jube domne,” answered by “Noc­ tem quietam,” a lectio brevis (1 Pet. V, 8-9), “Deo gratias," “Ad­ jutorium nostrum,” confession, and absolution. Then follow the “Converte nos” and “Deus in adjutorium,” after which three Psalms or sections of Psalms, different for each day, arc recited. A hymn is sung, followed by a capitulum, responsory, and a ver­ sicle, to which is added the “Nunc dimittis” with its antiphon. If prescribed, the prcccs are added. The “Dominus vobiscum” and oration, blessing, and antiphon of the B. V. Mary arc followed by “Dominus vobiscum," Pater, Ave, and Credo.10 § 6. The Material Composition of the Divine Office The reader of the Divine Office will notice that it contains ele­ ments of major and minor importance and that some parts precede the main body, while others surround it like an ornament. This reminds one of the opus distinctionis and opus ornatum of the Schoolmen applied to the work of creation, or hexaemeron. Of course, the comparison is imperfect; but it will be observed that die Psalms, canticles, and lessons are the most important parts, while the oration, creeds, hymns (including the “Te Deum”), the antiphons and responsories, the chapters and vcrsiclcs, form the ’♦S.R.C., April 29, 1887, ad II (n. 3675). In the monasteries there is no Oficc all afternoon until Compline. 15 Bâuiner» Z. c., pp. 103 and 178» where he refutes the idea that Compline existed before the time of St. Benedict. 10 The monastic Oflice omits the responsory and “Nunc dimittis" (except on Holy Saturday)» has as preces only the Credo with “Dignare,” “Domine exaudi,” etc.» and the same Psalms every day. Σ34 THE DIVINE OFFICE ornament o£ the Office. To that ornamental part also belong the absolutions and blessings and the anthems of the Blessed Virgin Mary. All this was not the work of one period, but gradually developed into the harmonious structure of the Divine Office as wc have it. §7. Psalms and Canticles Psalm (derived from psalmus, psallere) signifies striking a stringed instrument, or a pious song accompanied by such an in­ strument. The “Book of Psalms” or scpher-tehellim means a book consisting of songs of praise.17 It contains 150 such songs, but not all are of the same poetical character or devotional value.18 The use of the Psalms in the Temple and by the Jewish people is well known. Our Lord and His Apostles 10 were no doubt wont to keep the hours of prayer employed by the Hebrews. What the Fathers of the Church thought of the Psalms is pithily expressed in the words of St. Ambrose: "Psalmus vox Ecclesiae est"2Q Hence the study of the Psalms has always been highly recommended to the clergy.21 Of the distribution of the Psalms or the “psalterium dis­ positum per hebdomadam” in the Roman Breviary before the re­ form of Pius X, it may be said that this disposition was in vogue in the West at the time of Charlemagne.22 The present disposi­ tion, which is new, can be seen from the Breviary. The number of “Cantica” has been increased from ten to seven­ teen in the new Breviary. The Greeks had nine canticles from the Old Testament and three from the New Testament. Of the Old Testament canticles only the one from the Prophet Jonas (chapt. 3) is omitted in the Roman Breviary. The use of canticles is as old as that of the Psalms. The difference in character is very slight, canticle meaning merely a song unaccompanied by an instrument.23 17 H. Hôpfl, O.S.B., Compendium V.T., 1914» p. 154. 18 The Latin text is sometimes very hard to understand. The Psalterium ex Hebraeo Latinum by F. Zorcll, S.J., is a great help to the understanding of the Latin text. 18 Matt. XXVI, 30; XXVII. 46. 20 Tlialliofcr, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 395. 21 Tiic literature on the Psalins may be seen in any “Introduction to the Bible.” 22 Baumer. /. e.t pp. 252 f. 23 Sec, however. Exodus XV, 20, where Miriam, the Sister of Moses, sings the canticle sung by Moses and the children of Israel to a timbrel. MATERIAL COMPOSITION OF THE DIVINE OFFICE 135 The new Breviary retains the Psalms as assigned to each day of the week, even if a feastday occurs, unless otherwise ruled. The rules are laid down in the rubrics of the Psalter. The two sets of Lauds and Canticles correspond to one another, so that if the first set of Psalms, called Lauds I, is recited, the first set of cantides is also recited. All the canticles are taken from the Old Testament. The canticles from the New Testament arc the “Benedictus,” which is always recited at Lauds, the “Magnificat,” which is sung or recited at Vespers, and the “Nunc dimittis,” which is recited at Compline. Each Psalm and canticle closes with the smaller or minor “doxology,” z. a., “Gloria Patri,” etc., which was sung after each Psalm in Western monasteries 24 as early as the fifth century. This doxology is omitted on the three last days of Holy Week and in the Office of the Dead, in which latter the “Requiem aeter­ nam” is added at the end of each Psalm. As to the recitation of the Psalms, the new rubrics of the Breviary (title I, nn. 1-3) rule as follows: In reciting the Divine Office according to the Roman Rite, the Psalms for each of the Canonical Hours are to be taken from the day of the week, as distributed in the newly arranged Psaltery, which takes the place of the old order in all new editions of the Breviary. An exception is made for the Feasts of Our Lord and their Octaves, for the Sundays within the Octaves of the Nativity, Epiphany, the Ascension, and Corpus Christi, for the Vigil of Epiphany and the Friday after the Octave of the Ascension, when the Office of these days is prescribed. Also for the Vigil of the Nativity at Lauds, and at the other Little Hours up to None, and for the Vigil of Pentecost; also for all Feasts of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Holy Angels, St. John the Baptist, St. Joseph, and the Apostles; likewise for doubles of the First and Second Class and their Octaves. The Office is to be said in the manner described either in the Breviary or in the Proper of the diocese or institute, with this special rule, however, that the Psalms for Lauds, Little Hours, and Compline are to be ta^cn from the Sunday, as in the new Psaltery, but at Matins and Vespers they arc to be said as in the Common, unless special Psalms arc assigned. 24 Cassian, De Inrt. Coenob., II, 8: ’’concinant cum clamorc.” h called minor doxology, to distinguish it from the “Gloria in excelsis”; Baumer, I. c., p. 124· i36 the divine office For (he last three days of Holy Week no change is to be made, but the Office is said as it is now arranged in the Breviary; the Psalms at Lauds, however, being taken from die current Feria, as in the new Psaltery, with the exception of the canticle for Holy Saturday, which remains as before: “Ego dixi: In dimidio . . At Com­ pline the Psalms are taken from the Sunday, as in the new Psaltery. In every other Double or Major Double Feast, in every Semi Double or Simple, and in the Ferials during Easter tide, the Psalms with their antiphons at all the Hours, and the Verses at Matins are said as in the Psaltery for the occurring day of the week; all the rest, and the antiphons at the “Magnificat” and “Benedictus" arc said as in the Proper or Common. If any such feasts have proper or specially assigned antiphons, they shall be retained, to­ gether with the Psalms as given in the Breviary; in the other Hours the Psalms and antiphons are to be said from the occurring Ferial. §8. Lessons As the Jewish service contained lessons25 read from the Law and Prophets, so sections from the same books were read in the meet­ ings of the Christians, to which were added extracts from the Gospels and the Epistles of St. Paul. According to the earliest docu­ ments preserved in the writings of St. Justin and of Tcrtullian, and in the Apostolic Constitutions, the order of reading was: (i) a section from the Old Testament; (2) a section from the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles of St. Paul; (3) an extract from the Gospels. On the Feasts of the martyrs, whether celebrated at the place of their martyrdom or in rheir titular church, their acts or gesta were read. In the fourth century Matins and Vespers were enriched with readings from Holy Writ. On week-days two les­ sons were read—one from the Old and one from the New Testa­ ment. On Saturday and Sunday both lessons were taken from the New. It appears a well-founded assumption that the sequence ar­ ranged by St. Benedict in his Rule (cap. 9) influenced the subsc25 Among the Jews, for the convenience of public reading in the synagogue, the MSS. of the Law were marked into sections (Parashot), 290 in number and into smaller paragraphs (Sedarim), 379 in number. Similarly the Haphtaroth or lessons from the Prophets, were divided into 54; Farrar, The Bible, 1877, p. 221. MATERIAL COMPOSITION OF THE DIVINE OFFICE 137 qucnt order of reading the Office, especially with regard to the expositions or homilies from the Fathers of the Church. This is very noticeable in the Ordines Romani, which follow the order of the lessons prescribed by St. Benedict, with but slight modifica­ tions. In the seventh and eighth centuries, a selection was made of Scripture readings, more or less appropriate to the season. Thus passages from Isaias were read during Christmas tide, but the other prophets were also used during that period. Pre-Lenten readings were taken from the Heptateuch all through Lent. Passion week was marked by readings from the Prophets, from Job, and also from Jonas, as a type of the suffering Saviour. At Easter tide began readings from the Acts of the Apostles and the Apocalypse. Later in autumn the historical books were read. The Epistles of St. Paul furnished material for the lessons of the third nocturn throughout the year. No system in the proper sense of the word is as yet visible, except the tendency to recite the whole Psalter in the course of each week, and the whole of Scripture in the course of each year. If the "scriptura occurrens" was not already assigned, the su­ perior of the choir, the bishop or abbot, made the choice as to sub­ ject and length.20 On the feast days of Saints, which were solemnly celebrated, all the lessons were taken from the life of the respective Saint—not rarely with romantic and fictitious embellishments. If these did not suffice to fill up the time, the gesta or passiones were read in the third nocturn, while the lessons of the first and second nocturn were taken from Holy Writ and the Sermons of the Fathers.27 From the eleventh century onward there was a systematic tend­ ency to abbreviate the long lessons and to fix their content, so that the superiors could no longer arbitrarily determine the matter and the length of lessons.28 But it was only under the influence of the reform of St. Pius V and Clement VIII that the lessons were finally determined, and they remained thus up to the time of Pius X (“Divino afflatu”). A difficult task still remains, namely, the critical revision of the biographies of the Saints. 2C Baumer, I. c., p. 273 fï. 2· Ibid., p. 278. 28 Baumer, I. c.. p. 335. 138 THE DIVINE OFFICE Concerning the lessons, the new rubrics of the Breviary (title I, n. 4) prescribe: The lessons at Matins in the first nocturn are al­ ways to be read from the occurring Scripture, even when the Breviary assigns lessons from the Common, except on feasts of Our Lord, the Blessed Virgin Mary, rhe Angels, St. John the Baptist, St. Joseph, the Apostles, or a Double of the First or Second Class; or in the case of a feast which has its proper lessons, not from the Common, or which occurs on a Ferial which has no lessons from Scripture and therefore necessarily takes its lessons from the Common. On feasts which have lessons from the Common, but proper responsories, the lessons with their proper responsories arc to be retained. From the fourth century onward the reader of the lessons asked a blessing of the presiding officer of the choir. He stood before the superior and said “Benedic pater,” which was later changed into: “Jube Domine benedicere.” When the superior thought that enough had been read, he said: “Tu autem” (meaning “desine” or “cessa,” i.e., stop). Whereupon the reader answered “Domine, miserere nobis,” and the whole choir, “Deo gratias.”20 The absolutions: “Ex­ audi Domine,” “Ipsius pietas,” “A vinculis,” as they are now worded, are of later date, and were not yet known in the thirteenth cen­ tury. However, a combination of absolution and blessing was in vogue long before. There were also different formulas of absolu­ tion and blessing for the various feasts.30 §9. Orations, Prayers, and Suffragium Orations, in the proper sense, arc those prayers which refer cither to the mystery or the Saint whose feast is celebrated and contain a petition suitable to cither. They are also called collectae, because at the station where the clergy and people assembled, was said a prayer known as “oratio ad collectam.” The question who composed the collects, when they were first used, or who arranged special ones for each day of the year, are involved in the mystery that 20 The rules of Caesarius and Aurelian demanded that three or four leaves be read. In the Palatinate Chapel, Charlemagne gave the sign (or stopping "baculo ant sono gutturis”; Baumer, /. c., p. 268. 30 Baumer, I. c.t p. 269. MATERIAL COMPOSITION OF THE DIVINE OFFICE 139 surrounds the early development of the Roman Rite.31 Doubtful also is the lime when these orations were first introduced into the office.32 The prayer par excellence is the “Our Father,” with which the Office was formerly concluded. Il is to he said in a loud voice at Lauds and Vespers, while at the other hours only the closing sentences are to be recited aloud.3334 Another prayer, now universally recited at the beginning and end of the Office, is the “Hail Mary.” Up to the thirteenth or four­ teenth century it ended with the “fructus tui.” When the devo­ tion to the Holy Name of Jesus had been propagated by that great Franciscan, St. Bernard of Siena, the word “Jesus” was added. Later, in the fifteenth or at the beginning of the sixteenth century, the “Holy Mary,” as now recited, was added, followed by the “Credo.” These prayers later entered into the reformed Breviary of 1568.« The preces or vcrsicle and invocations which arc contained in the Office arc of ancient date,35 and were recited at Vespers and Lauds by the deacon. They arc intended as supplications for the whole world, for the Church and its hierarchy, for travellers and absent members, for the sick and exiled, and were answered by the people with “Kyrie eleison.” The “Confiteor” is a petition for forgiveness, in order that our prayers may be more effective. There arc two kinds of preces, viz., dominical and ferial. The former arc called dominical because recited on Sundays, and are recited on all Sun­ days and feast days of the week of a lower rank than double (but not on Octave days) at Prime and Compline. The preces jeriales, also called flebiles, because recited on penitential days, arc said at Lauds, Prime, Little Hours, and Vespers. The "Miserere" and “De profundis” arc no longer added to these prayers, which 31 A. Fortescue* The Mats, 1912» p. 245; Thalhofer, Idturgik, Π. 1890. p. 82. 32 Thalhofer, /. c.t p. 421 f., thinks that some orations were of Apostolic origin. 'l*hc Apostolic Constitutions (VIII» 35) testify to this for the Orient. Whether the Lateran Basilica had them in the XJIlth century» is doubtful, but elsewhere these ora­ tions at the Office were certainly in use. 53 Régula S. Benedicti, cap. 13. 34 Baumer, /. c.t p. 445. 35 Baumer, I. c., p. 602 fl. (Beilage II) finds in the oration ’‘Fidelium*’ of Clement I the oldest form of the preces feriales. Mo THE DIVINE OFFICE are prescribed for all ferial days of Adveni and Lent, for the Ember Days and Vigils, except the Vigil of Christmas, Ascension, Epiph­ any, and for the Ember Days of Pentecost and the Friday before Pentecost. They arc to be recited even when a commemoration of a simplified double or semidouble occurs.30 The suffragium, now only one, was formerly made up of several antiphons and orations. It is the invocation of Saints in behalf of the suppliant Church. Its origin is rather obscure; but suffrages were certainly in use before the eleventh century. The “suffragia,” as formerly recited, appear at the time of the reform of St. Pius V.37 Now there is only one suffrage said at Lauds and Vespers, except during Advent and Passion tide, and at every office that ranks at least as double, even if simplified, and during octaves. It is also omitted on October 31. During Easter tide {viz., after Low Sun­ day) the commemoratio crucis takes its place. This commemoration is, however, omitted on the Friday before Pentecost, even though no feast of double rank occurs. § 10. Hymns 38 Hymnus is specifically a Christian term derived from the Greek. In ancient Christian writers it is generally described as “Laus Dei cum cantu.” St. Augustine defines it as “cantus cum laude Dei,” a song with praise of God. In this sense, the “Gloria” and rhe “Te Dcum” arc also called hymns. In the strict sense a liturgical hymn is a song whose sequence of words is ruled by metre or rhythm, with or without rhyme, but at least with a symmetrical arrangement of stanzas. Such are the metrical songs found in the canonical hours. The earliest historical traces arc found in the fourth century. Christian hymns were composed to combat heretical tendencies, and since these mostly originated in the East, the home of hymns was there. In the West, St. Hilary of Poitiers (d. 366) composed some hymns and his example was followed by St. Am­ brose (d. 397). Prudentius (after 405), St. Gregory the Great (d. 604), and Vcnantius Fortunatus (d. 605) are the best known 3C Rubrics of the Ordinarium ad Primam et Vesperas. 37 Thalhofcr, /. c., II, p. 427. 38 See Catfi. Encyclopedia, Vol. VII, /. v. MATERIAL COMPOSITION OF THE DIVINE OFFICE 141 hymn writers in the earlier stages of hymnology. The Middle Ages produced many ecclesiastical poets of good taste, among them St. Bernard of Clairvaux, Adam of St. Victor, St. Thomas, etc. Humanism dealt the death-blow to ecclesiastical hymnody. Nowa­ days there is a tendency to return to the ancient simplicity of ec­ clesiastical hymns. These hymns, reflecting as it were the spirit of the respective feasts, vary according to season and feasts. At the offices of the season (“de tempore”) the hymns assigned in the Ordinary or Psalter arc used, unless a special hymn is prescribed. The hymns of the Psalter are to be recited from Trinity Sunday (exclusive) to the beginning of Advent (excepting the Octave of Corpus Christi) and from the Octave of the Epiphany (exclusive) to the beginning of Lent. Advent, Lent, Passion tide and Easter tide have their own special hymns. The Office of the Saints retains the hymn of the Commune Sanctorum, unless the Saint has a proper hymn. Whenever the hymn of Vespers is not said at Vespers, it must be joined to the hymn at Matins, when both are of the same metre and the second is a continuation of the first, unless some other provision is made in the rubrics of the Breviary. In this regard the special rules given in the latest editions of the Breviary are to be observed.31’ But the Octave hymns, for instance, St. John the Bap­ tist’s, of the Vespers arc not joined to the hymn of Matins.40 The last strophe {Doxology) of the hymns which is proper to many of the Offices of Our Lord and the Blessed Virgin Mary (but not of the other Saints), as, for example, “Jesu, tibi sit gloria,” “Qui natus es de Virgine,” is said at all the Hours which have a hymn of the same metre. This Doxology is said from First Vespers to Compline of the following day inclusive, provided at least a com­ memoration of such feast is made, and even when that commemora­ tion has to be omitted on account of the identity of the mystery. It is likewise to be said during the entire octave of feasts of the First Class, if they are celebrated with an octave, unless there is a different conclusion proper to a feast celebrated within said octave. In the Sunday and ferial offices of Advent, however, the Doxology 30S.R.C.. March 23, 1911. ad IV (n. 4262). <°S.R.C., July 12, 1901, ad L (n. 4078). 142 THE DIVINE OFFICE “Jesu, tibi sit gloria” and the verside “Qui natus es” are never said. The conclusion of the hymns that arc proper in an octave of feasts of the Second Class arc said from First Vespers until None on the Octave day, even if that day is merely commemorated; but they are never recited during the Octave. When a simplified feast of the Blessed Virgin Mary, of which a commemoration is made, falls on a Sunday (excepting the Sundays of Advent), the conclusion of the hymns and versicle at Prime will be those proper to the feasts, unless a special conclusion and versicle arc required. If two offices concur, each of which has hymns with a conclu­ sion proper to itself, the Doxology of the hymn of which the Ves­ pers is said entire, or from the Little Chapter, is said at Compline. Exempt from these rules arc those hymns which have a conclu­ sion altogether proper, e. g., “Vexilla Regis," the hymn in Matins of several Martyrs, of St. Venantius, and others, as noted in the latest editions of the Breviary. These conclusions never vary. The conclusion: “Deo Patri sit gloria, Et Filio qui a mortuis Surrexit ac Paraclito In saeculorum saecula,” is to be regarded as proper to the hymn “Vcni Creator.” It must always be retained, no matter what the season of the year or the occurring feast. In the hymn “Istc Confessor” the words “Meruit beatus” are said in the First and Second Vespers, and also at Matins, if the feast of a Confessor is transferred from the “dies natalis,” i. c., the anni­ versary of the Saint’s death, to the next following day, either accidentally or in perpetuity. This rule is to be observed, provided the First Vespers are said at least in part, i. e., from the Little Chap­ ter. If “meruit supremos” is to be said instead of “meruit beatas,” the change is indicated in the Breviary by the letters “m. t. v.,” that is, “mutatur tertius versus.” If the feast of a Confessor is not trans­ ferred beyond the Octave, the words “meruit beatas” are not changed. MATERIAL COMPOSITION OF THE DIVINE OFFICE 143 § ii. Antiphons and Responsorics Antiphon, from the Greek word antiphonein {ex adverso, reci­ proce et alternatim canere'), means an alternate chant or recital. It is a refrain or short sentence taken from the psalm or canticle or history of the day. Il was sung by the people when the soloists chanted the psalm, after shorter or longer intervals. At least this seems to have been the practice in the Greek Church, since the Arian troubles of the fourth century. In the form in which it was adopted at Rome, the antiphon admitted the alternative singing of a complete psalm. All the verses were chanted to the same melody, but that melody varied for each psalm. Some musical phrases were executed before beginning the psalm proper, to which certain words, borrowed chiefly from the psalm itself, were adapted. This is what is called the anthem. It was doubtless sung as a solo by a cantor, in order to give the tone for the following psalmody. After the psalm was ended, there was a repetition of the anthem.11 There were also antiphons in the shape of rhymed verses, sometimes com­ prising as many as eighteen lines.4" The present antiphons arc attached to each psalm recited at Matins, Lauds, and Vespers—either one antiphon for all three psalms or sections thereof, for the Little Hours. The seasonal office has various antiphons. The “Benedictus” and "Magnificat” have their proper antiphons for every day of the week, and for every feast day. New antiphons are those for Sexagesima Sunday, the third antiphon of the Lauds of the third and fourth Sunday of Lent, and of the Wednesday of Holy Week.43 If the Office is less than double, the antiphon is only commenced, and fully recited at the end of the psalm or canticle. When the antiphon is a verbal transumption from the beginning of the psalm, the first verse serves as antiphon anti the second verse of the psalm is assumed. An exception to this rule is made if the antiphon has an additional “alleluia.” 44 41 Baumer, I. c., p. 122; Duchesne-McClure, I. c., p. 114 £.; Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. I, 575, /. r., ’’Antiphon.” ♦- Baumer, Z. c.. p. 358 f.; specimens» ibid. 43 S.R.C., Jan. 23» 1912. 44 Example: Ps. 90 on the feast of the Dedication. 144 THE DIVINE OFFICE Responsories (cantus responsorii) appear to be similar to anti­ phons. The people answered or repeated, in brief sections or verses, what the precentor had sung of the psalms or canticles or scriptural passages. When they originated is not known. They certainly were in existence before St. Benedict composed his Rule, for he men­ tions four responsorics for each nocturn, the last of the four to be sung with the additional “Gloria Patri.”115 Amalarius of Metz describes the mode of singing the responsories.40 Those recited or sung after the lessons arc the “responsoria prolixa,” so called to distinguish them from the “responsoria brevia,” which arc added to the chapter of Tierce, Sext, None, and Compline, but in the Monastic Office arc recited only at Lauds and Vespers. The rubrics45 *47 prescribe as follows: 1. In an Office of nine as well as three lessons, whenever these lessons arc from the occurring Scripture, the responsorics “de tem­ pore” arc to be taken. If the lessons of a Sunday are transferred to a weekday, the responsorics of the Sunday (/. e., of the First Noc­ turn) must also be said; if the lessons of one weekday are trans­ ferred to another day, the responsorics of the day occurring are to be said. Ferials, when not joined with Sunday lessons, have the re­ sponsorics of the occurring fcria. Exceptions arc: (a) The lessons of privileged octaves of the universal Church, which have the respon­ sories of the octave; (b) the lessons of the beginning of an occurring Scripture, which must be said in Offices that have their own or “de communi” lessons assigned and therefore their own proper responsorics; (c) the lessons from the Scripture of Sundays after Epiphany, which must be said during the week, are recited with the responsories of the occurring feria; (d) the responsorics of Mon­ day within the first week after Epiphany and of Monday within the first week after Pentecost, if impeded, must be transferred. 2. On the feasts of St. Lucy, St. John of Paul, and St. Clement the responsorics of the First Nocturn arc said in the Second Noc­ turn, and the Scripture is read with the seasonal responsorics in the First. 45 S. Reg., cap. it. 4rtSee Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. XII» s. v. “Responsorium.” “ S.R.C., Ocr. 28. 1913 {A. Ap. V. 460 f.). MATERIAL COMPOSITION OF THE DIVINE OFFICE 145 3. On the feast of St. Elizabeth (July 8) the lessons of the First Nocturn are of the Scripture and the responsories “de tempore.” § 12. Chapters and Versides The chapter or lectio brevis, mostly recited by heart, was taken cither from the Apostle (St. Paul), or from the prophets, or from the Apocalypse. Its use is testified to in the Rule of St. Benedict.48 They arc now recited at Lauds, Vespers, and all minor hours, in­ cluding Compline, and, for the most part, taken from the Epistle of the Mass. But the chapters for Prime and Compline arc not re­ lated to the Mass. On Sundays and feast-days at Prime the “Regi sacculorum," on ferial days the “Pacem” is said. Compline has a chapter from Jeremias XIV, 9. The Sunday chapter for Lauds, Little Hours (exclusive of Prime), and Vespers is recited from the Second Sunday after Epiphany to Septuagesima, and from the third Sunday after Pentecost to die last Sunday before Advent (unless a feast happens to occur on such Sundays). The ferial chapters are taken from the Octave of Epiphany (exclusive) to the first Sunday of Lent (exclusive), and from the Octave of Pentecost to die be­ ginning of Advent. Advent and Lent have their own chapters, as also have feast-days and octaves. The “Regi saeculorum” is like­ wise recited on the ferial days of Eastertide and on St. Maria in Sabbato. From Holy Thursday to Saturday “in albis,” and in the Office of the Dead the chapter is omitted. At the end of the reading “Deo gratias” is added.49 Versides are short sentences, generally taken from Scripture, and answered by the choir. They arc said at Matins, after each nocturn, or after the antiphon. At Lauds and Vespers they arc recited after the hymn, at the little hours after the responsory. On Easter Sun­ day and during its Octave the versicle is recited only after the Nocturn, but omitted at the other hours. During Easter tide an "alleluia” is added to the first and second verse. Commemorations also have their vcrsiclcs. 4* Régula, ce. 12 f. 4* The Monastic Office has a “lectio brevis” after the Second Noctum, when only two Nocturns arc said; one during Easter tide and the ferial Office from the time after Corpus Christi to the beginning of October, instead of the reading from the Scrip­ tures. 146 THE DIVINE OFFICE § 13. The Symbol and Te Deum The name symbol (symbolum) is given to a summary of dog­ mas. The Apostolic Creed, which is of an early date,00 was recited in the Divine Office since the days of Pope Damasus. It is said be­ fore Matins and Prime and after the last hour, also when the preces are prescribed at Prime and Compline. The “Quicumquc” or Symbolum Athanasianum, of uncertain origin, was recited in the Office since die ninth century, at the Prime on Sundays?1 It is now recited after the psalm "Retribue” on all Sundays of minor rank, except the Sundays within Octaves or those with a duplex simplificatum, and on Trinity Sunday. The Monas­ tic Office prescribes it only on the last-named feast. Te Deum laudamus is a joyful praise of God with an impos­ ing rhythm. Although its authorship is not fully established, the evidence points to Nicetas of Rcmcsiana (now ?\k-Palanka in Jugo­ slavia), who dedicated the hymn to St. zlmbrose.52 St. Benedict commanded the abbot to intone it after the fourth rcsponsory of the Third Nocturn on Sundays.03 According to the Monastic Breviary it is, in fact, said on all days which have three nocturns. The present Roman Breviary prescribes its recitation on all Sun­ days except those of Advent, and those from Septuagesima to Palm Sunday inclusive, also on all feast days of three or nine lessons and their octaves, except the feast of the Holy Innocents when it falls on a weekday; finally, during the paschal lime from Low Sun­ day to Ascension, except Monday of Rogation week. § 14. The Anthems of the Blessed Virgin Anthems, such as now sung or recited, arc not to be found in liturgical books before the eleventh century, although parts of the “Ave Regina caelorum” and "Regina Caeli” were in existence bew See Bardcnhewer, Geschichtt der dtchristl. Literatur, 1913, 1» 82 fl. 51 Baumer, /. c.. p. 254; it wan also called “Canticum Bonifatii” because the “Apostle of Germany” had commanded it to be said either daily or once a week. On its origin sec Kihn, Patroiogia, 1908, II, 32, 89. 02 Sec G. Morin, O.S.B., in the AVrne Benidictine, Vol. XI, 49 fl.; 337 f.; Vol. XIV, 367 fl.; Kihn, /. c., 135 f53 AV#., c. 11. MATERIAL COMPOSITION OF THE DIVINE OFFICE 147 fore that time. It appears that these anthems originated in the thir­ teenth century, most probably in the chapel of St. Louis IX of France (d. 1270). But they were at first recited only after the Compline. In the sixteenth, century all four anthems were recited at all the canonical hours in place of the Officium Parvum The “Alma” is recited from the First Vespers of Advent to the Second Vespers of Feb. 2. The “Ave Regina" is said from Com­ pline of Feb. 2 until Wednesday of Holy Week. The “Regina Caeli" starts with Compline of Holy Saturday and ends on the Saturday before Trinity Sunday, after None. The “Salve Regina” is said from the First Vespers of Trinity Sunday until after None on the Saturday before Advent. The Roman Breviary prescribes these anthems after Lauds and Compline; after Lauds, however, only in case no other hour is recited. After Compline it is always said, even though the Matins of the following day should be joined. If another hour is joined to Lauds, the anthem is said after that hour. In choir the anthems are recited every time an hour is finished, provided the members leave the choir. B‘ Baumer, I. c., p. 261. Chapter IV MODE OF RECITING THE DIVINE OFFICE The precise method of reciting the Divine Office publicly is ex­ plained somewhat differently by different authors. Custom evidently admits of considerable latitude. To say the Office validly requires at least a virtual intention. At­ tendance at choir and use of the Breviary arc signs of this inten­ tion, unless the very idea of reciting the Office were positively and deliberately excluded. Attention to the “Opus Divinum” requires the avoidance of all external occupations incompatible with this particular task. Thus deliberate unnecessary talk, prolonged atten­ tion to something different, See Pars Aut., XVI, 11. 11 Reg., cap. 8f. 13S.R.C., -May 18, 1883, ad II (n. 3574)· i5o THE DIVINE OFFICE used with due attention, so that one does not say die wrong Office. If, by mistake, one day’s office is recited for another, c.g., the Tues­ day office on a Monday, one is obliged to recite Tuesday’s office on Tuesday, but nothing else (“officium pro officio”).13 If the mis­ take is noticed in the course of the day, the mistake is to be cor­ rected from that canonical hour onward, but no obligation exists to correct what was recited by mistake.14 This also applies to public recitation. § I. PUBLIC RECITATION Before we explain the rules for the public recitation of the Divine Office, we may be permitted to make a remark concerning the pronunciation of Latin, the liturgical language of the Church. Pius X, of happy memory, addressed a letter to the Archbishop of Bourges, in which he expressed the desire that the present Roman pronunciation be adopted throughout France, because the pro­ nunciation of Latin is intimately connected with the restoration of the Gregorian Chant.10 Another important rule for uniform recitation is that the voices be evenly modulated, neither too high nor too low, neither too fast nor too slow. A syllabic pronunciation will prevent a too spirited or sluggish recitation, as also the absurd projecting of the stress on the last syllabic of a word at the asterisk or at the end of a verse.16 Furthermore, for an agreeable and easy recital the stops or pauses at the asterisk should be duly observed. The S. Congregation has insisted upon this rule, “notwithstanding any custom to the con­ trary.” 17 A choir is generally divided into two parts, which should, if possible, be equally balanced. The first choir is the one on the side of the hebdomadarian, while the other is called the second. Besides the hebdomadarian there arc the antiphonarians, or acolytes, 13 Decreta Auth., η. 1474. 14 Quigley, L c.t p. 78 f. 15 July 10, 1912 {A. Ap. S., IV, 577 f.). The letter is merely directive. 10 See Eccl. Rec., Vol. 32, p. 84, "Uniform Pronunciation of Latin.” Λ choirmaster remarked that the stress on the last syllabic sounds like the trumpet of the judg­ ment or like a stressed sound from a trombone. 1TS.R.C., July 9, 1864 (n. 3122); Wappelhorst, /. c., n. 254. PUBLIC RECITATION 151 or chanters, whatever their name may be. This is more closely determined by custom, as also the functions which the hebdoma­ darian (generally a priest), the antiphonarians, and the whole choir have to perform.18 1. Matins Before the Divine Office starts it is praiseworthy—but not obliga­ tory—to recite, in the singular, the “Aperi Domine," signing the lips with the little sign of the cross.10 Then follow: "Pater," “Ave,” and “Credo,” to be recited silently and in a standing posture.20 Then the hebdomadarian recites in a loud voice—one time only, and signing his lips with the sign of the little cross—(he "Domine labia mea aperies,” to which the whole choir answers: “Et os meum annuntiabit laudem tuam.” 21 Then the hebdomadarian intones, in a loud voice and with the sign of the large cross (made also by the whole choir), the “Deus in adjutorium meum intende,” which is answered by the choir with the “Domine, ad adjuvandum me festina.” This is followed by the “Gloria Patri,” etc., said by the hebdomadarian, during which he and (he choir bow their heads,22 and the choir answers without making a bow: “Sicut crat,” etc. Then is added “Alleluia” or “Laus tibi Domine, Rex aeternae gloriae,” which latter is said from Com­ pline before Septuagesima Sunday until Maundy Thursday. On Epiphany day, and this feast alone, the Office commences with the psalm "Afferte,” while the “Domine labia” and the “Deus in ad­ jutorium” are omitted, as also the invitatory, which is recited at the beginning of the Third Nocturn in the Roman but not in the Monastic Breviary. These are also omitted on the last three days of Holy Week. The invitatory corresponding to the Office is recited, cither by the first antiphonarian or, if sung, by two chanters. The whole verse is recited and repeated in its entirety by the choir. Then the antiphona18 Dec. Auth., n. 730. 10 Rub. Ordin., which does not state whether it is to be recited kneeling or standing. Pius X granted an indulgence of ίου days. Hartmann, /. c„ p. 173. We could not find a rubric prescribing a bow. 21 The Monastic Breviary has it after the “Deus in adjutorium,” recited thrice. 22 There is no particular rubric prescribing which of the bows must be made. 152 THE DIVINE OFFICE rian recites the first verse of Ps. 94: "Venite exsultemus,” etc., after which the choir repeats the whole verse of the invitatory, for instance, “Regem Confessorum Dominum, Venite Adoremus.” After the second stanza, commencing with “Quoniam Deus” and ending with “conspicit," the choir answers the last half-verse of the invitatory, viz., “Venite adoremus." The third stanza, “Quoniam ipsius . . . oves pascuae ejus," having been recited by the antiphonarian, the choir repeals the whole invitatory. All genuflect at the words: “Venite adoremus, et procidamus ante Deum” of the third stanza. Then follows the fourth stanza, after which the second half of the invitatory verse is repeated by the choir. In Passion tide the “Hodie . . . corda vestra” is not said by the antiphonarian, who simply continues with: “sicut in exacerbatione.” After the last or fifth stanza has been said by the antiphonarian, the choir repeats the whole invitatory verse. The “Gloria Patri” with the “Sicut erat" is said by the antiphonarian, and the second half of rhe invitatory is recited by the choir. Then the antiphonarian recites the first half of the invitatory, and the choir responds with the second half, “Venite adoremus.” After the invitatory follows the hymn assigned cither in the Or­ dinarium, or in the Psalterium, or in the Proprium, or in the Com­ mune. If there arc chanters, these may intone the hymn. Otherwise, the first antiphonarian usually commences the hymn, and his choir continues the rest of the first stanza, while the second choir sings the second stanza, and so on, alternately. The last stanza is to be said with the head bowed, as often as the Blessed Trinity or one of the Divine Persons arc named in the hymn.23 When there is no doxology, but only a petition without mention of the Holy Names, no bow is required.2'1 After the hymn the corresponding antiphons are said, which in the Office of double rite arc wholly recited before and after the psalms; in semi-doubles only the beginning of the antiphon, as far as the asterisk is said, but it is entirely recited after the psalm.25 The antiphons are intoned by the choir-members according to their 23 Wappdhorst, l. c., cd. 8, n. 255; cd. 10, n. 347; Vcncroni, /. c., I, p. 252. Neither adduces a rubric; nor could we discover any. 24 For inst., in the hymn for Matins on Apostle feasts in the Monastic Breviary. 25 Rub. Ordinarii. PUBLIC RECITATION »53 precedence of age, not according to their singing ability.2*’’ Whether all the nine antiphons must be intoned according to this rule, or whether the precedence begins anew at every nocturn, is not stated. But it appears that it runs through the nine antiphons, provided, of course, that there arc nine chorales who are entitled to intone an antiphon. After the antiphon or its beginning are recited the psalm and the “Gloria Patri,” etc., and then the antiphon is repeated. Thus we have three psalms for each Nocturn. After the antiphons of the third psalm the versiclc, as placed in the Breviary, is said. The hebdomadarian then in a loud voice utters the two words: “Pater noster,” silently recites the rest of the Our Father, up to “et ne nos inducas in tentationem,” which he pronounces loudly, answered by the choir with: “sed libera nos a malo.” Then follows absolution given by the superior or hebdomadarian, whereupon the reader of the lessons betakes himself to the lectern, genuflects (if the Blessed Sacrament is on the choir altar) or bows toward the cross, and turns toward the superior or hebdomadarian, saying: “Jube Domne benedicere”; after which the blessing is given. Thereupon the reader or chanter reads or sings the lesson in a clear, distinct, and intelligible voice. The lesson is closed with: “Tu autem Domine, miserere nobis,” said by the reader and answered with “Deo gratias" by the choir. Then follows the responsory (“responsorium prolixum”), the recitation of which varies in different choirs, it sometimes being said by the first and second antiphonarian, sometimes by the choir and the reader. Each lesson is commenced with “Jube” and the blessing and concluded with “Tu autem” and “Deo gratias,” fol­ lowed by the respective responsory. At the end of the third re­ sponsory a “Gloria Patri” is added and the last part of the responsory is repeated. For, as a rule, each responsory is divided into two parts, which are marked off by an asterisk and followed by a vcrsicle. Sometimes, however (for instance, in the first re­ sponsory on the first Sunday of Advent), there are more asterisks, which indicate a repetition of the parts so marked. During Pas­ sion tide and Holy Week no “Gloria Patri" is recited in the Office. 20S.R.C.. n. 1091: “Ordo antianitatis, non habilitatis.” 154 THE DIVINE OFFICE During Easter tide an “alleluia” is added before the verse—some­ times before the asterisk, as is noted in the Pars Verna of the Breviary. The Second Nocturn is recited like the first, with the respective antiphons, psalms, versidc, absolution, and blessing proper to each Nocturn. The lessons are recited or sung as in the First Nocturn, but differ from it as to content and responsories. The Third Nocturn has a few peculiarities. The blessing leads to the reading of the beginning of the Gospel text, thus: “Evangclica lectio,” whereupon the reader (generally a priest or at least a deacon) says: “Lectio sancti,” etc., then reads the title of the piece: "Horn­ ilia,” etc., and then recites the “Tu autem” responsory. The third lesson has no responsory when the “Tc Dcum” is to be said. After this hymn Lauds arc recited without any further addition or in­ terruption (in public recitation). In Offices which have only three lessons, the nine psalms with their respective antiphons (as in the Psalter) are recited continu­ ously and the versidc is added after the Third Nocturn, the versiclcs of the Second and Third Nocturn being omitted.27 The Office of the B. V. Mary in Sabbato has special absolutions and bless­ ings.28 2. Lauds Lauds are said immediately after Matins, without “Pater” and “Ave,” but with "Deus in adjutorium,” “Gloria Patri,” “Alleluia,” or “Laus libi, Domine.” Then the respective antiphon is either be­ gun or fully recited according to the rite, followed by the four psalms and rhe canticle. After the last or fifth antiphon the chapter, hymn, and verse arc said, followed by the antiphon “Benedictus” and a repetition thereof. If the preces are to be said, they are inserted after the repetition of the antiphon of lhe “Benedictus,” and lhe ferial ones must be recited kneeling by both choir and hebdomadarian, at least the rubric makes no distinction.20 The Sunday preces are said standRub. Ordin. 2* Ibid, ~Ό Ibid.: S.R.C., Nov. 12, 1831, ad 40 (n. 2682). PUBLIC RECITATION <55 ing. The versidc “Oremus et pro Antistite nostro N.” is omitted in Rome and elsewhere when the diocesan see is vacant.30 The administrator is not to he mentioned. After the versidc “Domine exaudi,” etc., is recited lhe verse “Dominus vobiscum”—at which the hcbdoinadarian rises—then comes lhe oration of the corresponding Office, followed by the commemorations, if they occur according to the rubrics, and the “suffragium sanctorum.” At the letter “N” inserted in the oration the rank is as follows: If an angel, e.g., St. Michael, or St. John the Baptist, are the titular saints of a Church, these arc to be men­ tioned before St. Joseph.31 After this commemoration of the saints, the hebdomadarian says: “Dominus vobiscum,” and lhe choir an­ swers: “Ei cum spiritu tuo.” Then follows lhe “Benedicamus Domino” with lhe response “Deo gratias," “Fidelium,” etc., and the response “Amen.” The “Pater noster” is said silently in its entirety. If no other canonical hour is added and the chorales arc to leave, the hebdomadarian says: “Dominus det nobis suam pacem,” where­ upon the choir answers: “El vitam aeternam. Amen.” This is immediately followed by one of the four anthems of the B. V. Mary, according to the season, after which the hebdomadarian says: “Divinum auxilium,” etc., answered by the choir with “Amen.” No other prayer follows. The “Regina coeli” is always said standing, while the other three anthems are said kneeling, except from the First Vespers of Saturday to Compline (inclusive) of Sunday. As to the Office of the first and second antiphonarian, lhe general rule is that lhe one whose choir side has intoned lhe antiphon, also intones the psalm.32 3. Prime If Prime immediately follows the recitation of Lauds the heb­ domadarian leaves the choir to vest for Mass, and the priest nearest 30 Rub. Ord. 31 Ibid. As <0 solemn Lauds, sec infra, pp. 159 & 156 THE DIVINE OFFICE to die hebdomadarian assumes the office.33 After "Pater,” “Ave,” “Credo” recited silently the officiator intones the “Deus in adju­ torium” etc., “Gloria Patri.”3'1 Then the antiphon is indicated cither by the precentor (capcllanus) or the hebdomadarian, whereupon the acolyte commences the first psalm as far as the asterisk. The other psalms arc begun by the acolyte of the side which recites the “Gloria Patri.” After the psalms the antiphon is recited in full by the one who had begun it before the recital of the psalms. The heb­ domadarian then recites the chapter, the precentors or acolytes re­ cite the responsory and versicle, the hebdomadarian the oration, unless the preces are to be inserted. After the oration the Martyrol­ ogy is sung. Then follow the other prayers, in a somewhat lower voice, the reading of the “lectio brevis” by the acolyte or precentor. The superior (or in his absence, the hebdomadarian) says the ver­ sicle “Adjutorium nostrum,” “Benedicite,” answered by the choir with “Qui fecit,” etc., “Deus,” whereupon the superior or heb­ domadarian gives the blessing, “Dominus nos benedicat,” etc., at which all bless themselves and the choir answers: “Amen.” In the Monastic Breviary follows the “Commemoratio,” said by the reader (lector), then the “Requiescant,” said by the superior and answered by the whole choir with “Amen.” The acolyte then begins the psalm “De profundis” and the hebdomadarian and the choir alternately recite the versiclcs, the hebdomadarian recites the oration “Deus veniae,” and two versiclcs arc recited by the heb­ domadarian and the choir, alternately. 4. Tierce, Sext, and None After the “Pater noster” and “Ave” are said standing and silently, the hebdomadarian intones the “Deus in adjutorium,” which is an­ swered by the whole choir with “Domine ad adjuvandum,” etc. Then the respective hymn is recited or sung, either by the chanters 33 Thus MartinuccbMenghini, Mantude SS. Ceremoniarum, X913, Vol. II, p. 9, n. 38. In some monastic choirs the junior priest on the hebdomadarian’i. side continues the office of the hebdomadarian. This custom is not unlawful» for in many things Nfartinucci himself refers to local customs {ibid., n. 36). 3< The same author (/. c.t n, 9) says: “ad 'Gloria Patri’ caput ad altare inclinabunt universi.” Elsewhere they simply make a profound bow, one choir turned towards the other. PUBLIC RECITATION ’57 or by the hebdomadarian or the acolyte. zXfter that the beginning of the corresponding antiphon is said and the acolyte of the first choir side intones the first half of the first verse, and the choir continues with the second half of the same. If it happens (hat the “Gloria Patri” of the first psalm is to be said by the second choir, the acolyte of the second choir intones the second psalm. Thus also with regard to the third psalm. After this the antiphon is sung or recited in full. Then follows the chapter, said by the hebdomadarian and answered by the choir with “Deo Gratias.” The rcsponsories and verses are then either recited or chanted; after which the ofiiciator says: “Kyrie eleison,” and the choir answers: "Christe eleison,” and “Kyrie eleison.” The two words “Pater noster” arc said aloud by the hebdomadarian, and the remainder of the Lord’s Prayer is recited silently until the “Et ne nos,” etc., which is an­ swered by the choir with: “Sed libera nos a malo.” Then the heb­ domadarian recites the “Dominus vobiscum,” to which the choir answers, “Et cum spiritu tuo.” This is followed by the “Oremus” and the oration, which arc recited by the hebdomadarian, who alone turns toward the altar. Then the versiclcs “Dominus vobis­ cum,” “Benedicamus Domino,” “Fidelium animae,” with their re­ spective responses (“Et cum Spiritu tuo,” “Deo gratias,” “Amen”) arc recited by the choir. After this is added the “Pater noster,” and if the choir is to leave, the antiphon of the Blessed Virgin. 5. Vespers and Compline After the silent recital of “Pater” and “Ave” the hebdomadarian intones the “Deus in adjutorium,” which is answered by the choir with “Domine ad adjuvandum,” etc., and “Gloria Patri,” etc. Then the antiphon is begun or sung entirely according to the rank of the feast, either by the precentor or by the senior of the choir on whose side is the hebdomadarian. Thereupon the acolyte of that same side recites the beginning of the first psalm. The second anti­ phon is intoned by the senior of the second choir, and the psalm begun by the senior of that side. The third and fifth antiphons and psalms as the first one; the fourth as the second. Then follows the recital of the chapter by the hebdomadarian, the first line of the i58 THE DIVINE OFFICE hymn either by the hebdomadarian or the precentor (if sung), or by the acolyte. The versiclc is then said by the cleric who intoned the hymn, and who also intones the antiphon, if the superior is not present. The “Magnificat,” at the beginning of which all bless themselves, is intoned by the acolyte or the chanters, and sung alter­ nately by the choir. The antiphon is repeated and the oration and other commemorations are added, followed by the "Dominus vobis­ cum,” "Et cum spiritu tuo,” "Benedicamus Domino," "Deo gratias” —if not sung by die chanters—and the “Fidelium animae," in a somewhat subdued voice, answered by the choir in the same tone.35 If Compline immediately follows Vespers, no anthem of the Bl. Virgin is recited, but the first acolyte, turned to the superior or hebdomadarian, says: “Jube domne benedicere,” to which the supe­ rior answers: "Noctem quietam,” etc., and the acolyte recites the "Fratres,” etc., answered by the choir with “Amen." Then the heb­ domadarian says: "Adjutorium,” etc., while all bless themselves. The “Pater Nosier” follows, recited secretly, then the hebdomadarian recites the "Confiteor,” and is answered by the choir with “Miserea­ tur tui,” etc., whereupon the choir recites the "Confiteor,” after which the hebdomadarian says: "Misereatur vestri,” and "Indulgen­ tiam.” Then the hebdomadarian in a loud voice intones the "Con­ verte nos,” etc., while the entire choir makes a small sign of the cross on the breast,38 and the “Deus in adjutorium,” etc. The anti­ phon is intoned and the psalms are said as in the Little Hours. Then the choir rises37 and the hebdomadarian intones: “Te lu­ cis," which is responded to as usual. Then follows the chapter by the hebdomadarian and the responsory and versiclcs by the chanters or acolytes. The antiphon is pre-intoned by the hebdomadarian and the "Nunc dimittis” is said like the “Magnificat.” The antiphon being repeated, the hebdomadarian says the oration or preces, if required. After the "Dominus vobiscum” and “Benedicamus” the superior or hebdomadarian says: "Benedicat,” while all bless them­ selves. Then the anthem of the B. V. Mary is sung, "Divinum 3SSec Martinucci'Menghini, I. c., II, p. 14, nn. 53 fl. ™ Ibid., II, p. j 2 n. 65. This sign is not customary everywhere. Ibid., n. 66. This, of course, supposes that the choir recites in a sitting position, which is assumed and expressly stated in the Cacrem. Epife. PUBLIC RECITATION 159 auxilium,” and silently “Pater,” “Ave,” “Credo,” and “Sacro­ sanctae.” 6. Solemn Vespers39 Solemn Vespers are the evening service sung and performed with the aid of assistants, vested in their respective robes, and singers. The number of assistants may be six, or four, or two. But at least two are required for solemn Vespers in the strict sense of the term. Vespers, at which function only (he celebrant, the master of cere­ monies, the censer-bearer and two acolytes assist, are ordinary or common Vespers, though the laity styles them solemn—at least where Vespers are not usually sung. Λ. Preliminaries a) The altar is properly decorated, if the liturgical rules allow it, and six or (for less solemn feasts) at least four candles are lighted. Λ book-stand with the antiphonal (Vesper book) may be placed in front of the scat of the celebrant. A bench or stool for the celebrant and his two assistants are placed on the epistle side.39 Either in the middle of the sanctuary against the railing, or on the epistle side next to the assistants, stools for the censer-bearer and acolytes are prepared, and a stool or chair near the celebrant for the master of ceremonies. b) As many copes as are needed should be laid out in the sac­ risty, also surplices40 for the celebrant, assistants, and servers. Furthermore two candlesticks with candles lighted, the censer and incense boat; and care should be taken that fire is at hand for the incense at the proper time. 38 Martinucci-Menghini, l. c., II, p. 14, tell us that they follow the Caeremoniale Episcoporum and that their excerpt differs considerably from the rite described by other liturgists. This is quite true, for after having consulted various authors, e. g., “Ceremonial of the U. S.” 8th cd.; Hartmann, ■'Repertorium"; Wappelhorst, etc., we were somewhat puzzled at the variety. It should be remembered chat the Carre m. Episc. has collegiate and cathedral churches in view. J!> These may be covered with a green cloth; Martinucci, I. c., Π, p. 14, n. 4. 40 If the assistants, like abbots and prelates, enjoy the privilege, a rochet must be prepared instead of a surplice. No stoic for anyone, unless exposition accompanies or follows Vespers. S.R.C., May 27. ad X1! (n- 4269). ι6ο THE DIVINE OFFICE B. The Function 1. The master of ceremonies gives a sign to all present in the sacristy to bow before the crucifix or prominent image; whereupon the thurifer, if he carries the censer, proceeds first; 41 then the two acolytes with their candlesticks, then the master of ceremonies, then the assistants, if there arc more than two, then the celebrant, on whose side march two assistants holding the ends of the celebrant’s cope. The celebrant and the assistants wear their birettas, while other clergymen hold theirs with both hands. 2. Arriving at the altar, the acolytes take their places at the right and left corners of the lowest step. The master of ceremonies stands to the right of the first assistant, while the censer-bearer takes his place next to the acolyte who is on the epistle side. Space permitting, all should stand in one line, or the thurifer behind the celebrant.42 3. If the Blessed Sacrament is preserved on the altar, all make a genuflection on the floor, in piano; before the crucifix only the cele­ brant and assistants make a profound inclination, while the others genuflect. 4. After having made the reverence, the celebrant and his assist­ ants kneel on the lowest altar step and recite the “Aperi,” while the acolytes betake themselves to the left and right side of the altar, respectively, place the candlesticks on the first step or in piano, and extinguish them if this is customary; if the Blessed Sacrament is exposed, the candles are not put out.43 5. The master of ceremonies, after the recital of the “Aperi,” gives the sign for rising, whereupon the celebrant and his assistants make a genuflection or inclination, as the case may be, and then repair to their bench or chairs. The acolytes and the thurifer take their stand at their appointed places, or sit down until the master gives a sign to rise. When they remain standing, they immediately recite the “Pater” and “Ave,” silently with uncovered heads. 6. Upon a sign given by the master of ceremonies, the celebrant 41 If the thurifer carries no censer, he inarches on the left of the master of cere­ monies. 42 Hartmann, I. c.. p. 229. 43 Martinucci, /. c., H, p. 16, n. 12. In many places, the candlesticks with the burn­ ing candles are placed on the credence; I kirtm.nin, /. r. PUBLIC RECITATION ι6ι intones the “Deus in adjutorium,” making the large sign of the Cross, while an assistant to his right holds up the edge of the cope. The choir then makes the response. Towards the end of the "Sicut erat” the first assistant, together with the master of ceremonies goes to the altar, inclines or bows, and presents himself before the cele­ brant, to whom he bows, and pre-intones the first antiphon, which is then intoned by the celebrant.·14 7. The first assistant then returns to the altar and to his place next to the celebrant. The two chanters (in surplice) walk to the middle of the sanctuary, genuflect before the altar, salute the cele­ brant, and, standing, intone the first psalm, after which they again genuflect, salute, and return to their places.45 The psalm is con­ tinued either by the clergy or the choir. After the psalm has been intoned, all sit down, and the celebrant and his assistants put on their birettas.46 At the “Gloria Patri" the biretta is taken off until the “Sicut erat,” and all make a profound inclination. No rule di­ rects that the celebrant and his assistants, or even the servers, should rise at the “Gloria.” 47 The two chanters also pre-intone the four following antiphons in this way: at the “Sicut erat" they proceed to the middle of the sanctuary, make a genuflection to the altar (crucifix or Bl. Sacrament), betake themselves to the dignior chori, or whatever side he may be seated, make a bow before the latter, which is answered by the dignior. After the choir on both sides has arisen, one of the chanters pre-intones the second antiphon in an audible but somewhat subdued voice. This is then intoned by the dignior chori in a loud voice. The third antiphon is pre-intoned by one of the chanters to the dignior chori on the other side, and thus alternately, until the fifth antiphon inclusively.48 If there are more than two assistants {pluvialistac), the last one of them is supposed to pre-intone.49 Al the “Gloria Patri” after each psalm, and at the 14 The Caertm. Epiic. (II. c. 2, § 6) stresses the rule that the pltwiaiista (assistant), not the chanter, should pre-intone. 45 Martinucci-Menghini, l.c., II, p- 17» n- 22· ** Maronucci, /. c., II, p. 17, n. 20. The “caps” of the U. S. Ceremonial (p. 186 fl.) have no place in the Caere m. Episc. 47 Ibid., n. 21. 4*Thus Maninucci, I. c., II, p. 17, nn. 22-24. Different in Wappclhorst, p. 511» n. Nfartimicci, /. c.t n. 25. The two assistants (pliwialistae) arc, so far as we can make out, not supposed to intone the antiphons. 102 THE DIVINE OFFICE words “Laudate, pueri, Dominum,” the celebrant and his assistants uncover their heads and make an inclination, which example is followed by the choir. 8. Before the last of the five antiphons is sung, the candle bearers go to the middle of the altar, genuflect in piano, and bow to the celebrant. If the candles were extinguished, they relight them and, holding the candlesticks properly, they proceed again to the middle of the altar, bow to the celebrant and place themselves near the celebrant on his right and left, their faces turned towards one an­ other. The two assistants uncover their heads and arise. If there are more assistants (pluvialistae), they go to the middle of the altar, genuflect, proceed before the celebrant, bow and then place them­ selves to his right and left. The acolytes take their stand behind these supernumerary assistants.50 9. After the fifth antiphon the celebrant takes off his biretta and rises; the whole choir rises with him; with hands joined before his breast he sings the chapter.51 The “Deo gratias” is answered by the choir. Then one of the two chanters (or the pluvialista) preintones the hymn, and the celebrant intones it. Thereupon the super­ numerary assistants and the acolytes bow before the celebrant, re­ turn to the altar, and, having genuflected, return to their respective places, the acolytes cither to the right and left of the altar or to the credence. After the hymn, the two chanters (or pluvialisiae) sing the versidc, which is answered by the choir, and, having made the usual reverences to the altar and the celebrant, return to their places. Towards the end of the hymn the censer bearer goes to the sacristy to prepare the incense. to. 'I'he first assistant, after having made a reverence to the cele­ brant, pre-intones the antiphon for the “Magnificat,” which is then intoned by the celebrant, who afterwards is seated and puts on the biretta. The antiphon being finished by the choir, the two chanters come up to the middle of the altar and, after the usual reverences, intone the “Magnificat.” At the beginning of this canticle, the cele­ brant and chorales arise and make the sign of the cross. 50 Hartmann, /. c., p. 330; Martinucci· /. c., n. 30 f. 61 If there is no stand, cither a plutrialista or an acolyte holds the book from which the celebrant reads the chapter. PUBLIC RECITATION 163 11. Accompanied by the two assistants and preceded by the cen­ ser bearer, the two acolytes, and the master of ceremonies, the cele­ brant goes to the middle of the altar, with hands folded (his cope being held up at the ends by the two assistants), salutes the choir, and makes cither a genuflection (if the Blessed Sacrament is there), or a profound inclination, while all others genuflect. The celebrant, together with his two assistants, ascends the altar steps and kisses the altar (the supernumerary assistants remain at the foot of the altar in piano). Turning to the epistle side, but without leaving the center of the altar, the celebrant is helped by the second assistant, who holds up the end of the cope, while the first assistant holds the incense boat and offers the spoon, with the usual kisses, to the cele­ brant, r.tying: “Benedicite, Pater Reverende (Reverendissime)." The second assistant holds up the censer and the celebrant puts incense into it, saying: “Ab illo benedicaris, in cuius honore cremaberis,” blessing both the censer and the incense. The second assistant drops the end of the cope and repairs to the left side of the celebrant. The first assistant returns the incense boat to the master of ceremonies and receives from him the censer, which he hands to the celebrant, who incenses the altar as at Solemn High Mass, reciting the “Mag­ nificat” during the incensation. z\fter the incensation the celebrant, standing on the epistle side, returns the censer to the first assistant, who in turn hands it to the thurifer. Then the celebrant and his assistants go to the middle of the altar and, having bowed to the cross, descend in planum, where they make the usual reverences, salute the choir, and return to their places?2 12. Then follows the incensation of the celebrant and the chorales. When there are only two assistants, the first receives the censer from the thurifer, makes a profound 53 inclination before the celebrant, to whom he gives three swings and repeats the inclination. Then the first assistant hands the censer to the censer bearer, who pro­ ceeds to incense the clergy. Canons get two swings of the censer, other clerics, even though they be priests, only one. To each canon the censer bearer makes a bow before and after the incensation, but δ2 Martinucci, /. c., n. 47, says: "pluvialistae autem manebunt in chori piano ante eum;” hut this is meant strictly for canons, as is evident from what he slates afterwards. 63 Martinucci, /. c., n. 48: "cum profunda inclinatione antea et post." 104 THE DIVINE OFFICE to the clergy he bows in globo. After the clergy have been incensed, the thurifer goes to the first and second assistants, whom he incenses in turn with two swings, and lastly the laity, with three swings in globo. If there arc four or six assistants, the first assistant incenses the celebrant, as described above, then hands the censer to the last assistant, who incenses first the canons and chorales, and then the other assistants. The thurifer then receives the censer and incenses first the last assistant and then the rest, as described above.61 13. After the thurifer has incensed the people, the chanters or the choir sing the “Gloria Patri,” while the censer bearer, with bended head, remains in the place where he incensed the people, and then returns to the sacristy. 14. After the “Sicut erat” has been sung, and the antiphon is be­ ing repeated, all arc seated with covered heads. Towards the end of the antiphon the acolytes take their candlesticks and stand, as at the “Capitulum.” The assistants then take off their birettas and rise to assist the celebrant. The latter also rises with head uncovered, folds his hands, and sings the “Dominus vobiscum,” “Oremus,” and the oration in tono festivo. If commemorations arc to be made, the chanters or the choir sing the antiphon and versicle,65 the cele­ brant sings the “Oremus” and the oration. Afterwards the cele­ brant sings the “Dominus vobiscum,” answered by the choir, and the two last assistants (if there arc more than two) or the chanters, sing the “Benedicamus,” etc.; after which the celebrant recites in a lower voice the “Fidelium,” etc., then silently the “Pater noster," then the “Dominus det,” etc., answered by the choir. After that the celebrant begins demissa voce, and remaining in his place (viz. on the epistle side) the anthem of the B. V. Mary, the versicle, and the oration.06 Then all return to the sacristy in the order in which they came. 04 Martinucci, 7. c., n. 48 F.; Hartmann. I. c.. p. 231 f. Here again we note that in some monastic choirs the priests receive two swings like canons, which, of course, is per iiioihim assimilationis aut praesumptionis. 05 If there are more than two assistants, the last two arc supposed to sing the anti­ phon and versicle in medio choro: Martinucci, I. e., n. 51. 50 Thus Martinucci, 7. e.t n. 56, and Hartmann, 7. c., p. 232, according to the Caerem. Episc., 11, c. 3, 3 15. PUBLIC RECITATION 165 7. Vespers before the Blessed Sacrament 1. If the solemn blessing is to be imparted immediately after Vespers, the celebrant should wear amice, surplice, stole, and copc.57 The assistants arc dressed as at solemn Vespers. Besides, there should be another priest, who wears a surplice and uses the stole for ex­ position, but the stole should be worn only at the time he handles the Blessed Sacrament. The censer bearer with censer marches first,58 then follow two acolytes with candlesticks and burning can­ dles, two or more torch bearers with burning torches, the master of ceremonies, the celebrant with his two assistants holding the ends of the cope, all three wearing their birettas. 2. After the exposition of the Blessed Sacrament59 the “Apcri” is recited by the celebrant and his assistants, kneeling on the lowest altar step, whereupon they make a simple genuflection00 on the same step and betake themselves to their places on the epistle side. The torch bearers return to the sacristy with the priest, while the two acolytes either leave their candlesticks with candles burning on each side of the altar or carry them to the credence, where they take their places. 3. There arc no reverences, bows or salutations, no kissing of hands or utensils; the heads remain uncovered. The functionaries as well as the choir may be seated, though standing is recom­ mended.111 4. Ar the "Magnificat,” after the simple genuflection, as stated above, the celebrant turns a little to the gospel side and puts the incense into the censer with the usual words: "Benedicite'’ and "Ab illo benedicaris”; then immediately, without genuflection, he as­ cends, together with his assistants, to the second step of the altar and, kneeling on the edge of the platform (supra ora suppedanii) incenses the Blessed Sacrament with three swings. No other altar *7S.R.C., Sept. 19, 1883, ad II (n. 3593)68 II the Blessed Sacrament is already exposed, no censer or torches arc used. 59 Sec below. 60 Only when the Blessed Sacrament is already exposed a double genuflection is made at the very first approach to the altar, and at the time of leaving it, provided the Blessed Sacrament remains exposed. (S.R.C., Nov. 12, 1831, ad 19; n. 2682.) Cl Caereni. Episc., Π, c. 33, n. 33: but standing outside the choir-stalls is nowhere even mentioned. 166 THE DIVINE OFFICE is to be incensed and the inccnsation is done as usual, but neither the cross (if there be one) nor relics and pictures arc incensed, but the rest of the incensation of clergy and people follows, though without bows. 5. No special commemoration of the Blessed Sacrament is in­ serted, unless the Office calls for it, as it does during the Octave of Corpus Christi. When, in the hymn of the Blessed Sacrament, the “Tantum ergo” is sung, the celebrant and his assistants go to the altar and, having made a simple genuflection, kneel on the lowest step until this stanza is sung, and then return to -their places.·2 If the Blessing is to be imparted after Vespers, this ceremony is per­ formed as usual.03 8. Solemn Compline 1. If Compline immediately follows Vespers, the candles remain lighted on the altar; if not, only two candles burn there. The of­ ficiating priest, his assistants and the chanters wear surplices only. Two acolytes with candlesticks assist. There is no inccnsation. 2. The whole cortege approaches the altar as at Vespers, and all repair to their places on the epistle side. Then the chanter (or reader), after bowing to the celebrant and facing the latter, recites the words: “Jube, domne benedicere,” which the celebrant answers with: “Noctcm,” etc.; then he reads the brief lesson, “Fraires," etc., which he ends with “Tu autem” and returns to his place. 3. Thereupon the celebrant recites the prayers as in the Breviary. When saying the "Misereatur,” he turns towards the choir, and at the “Indulgentiam” he makes the large sign of the cross. At the “Converte” and “Deus in adjutorium” he raises his voice and signs himself with the small and the large sign of the cross. The chan­ ters pre-intone the antiphon, the hymn, and the “Salva nos.” After the hymn, the celebrant sings the chapter, the chanters the responsory and versicle—while the acolytes remain in their places. The 62 Dec. Auth., n. 1583, ad 7. Concerning the “O Salutaris” there is no rule. 02 For Pontifical Vespers see Stchle. Manual oj Episcopal Ceremonies, 1914. pp. 14 (T. In ordinary parish churches, where there is no obligation of public recitation, but Vespers are sung for the devotion of the people, Vespers may be taken from any Office (Bl. Sacrament or Our Lady). However, these obliged to say the Office must recite the Vespers of the day privately; S.R.C., Dec. 29. 1SS4, ad XII (n. 3624). LAST THREE DAYS OF HOLY WEEK 167 “Nunc dimittis" is sung without incensation, the antiphon is pre­ intoned by the chanters, and. the celebrant sings the prayers which follow. In a somewhat subdued voice he recites the “Benedicat et custodiat." Then the anthem of the B. V. Mary is sung by the choir, whereupon the “Pater," the “Ave,” the “Credo,” and the “Sacrosanctae” are recited silently and the functionaries return to the sacristy.64 9. Office of the Last Three Days of Holy Wee^ The Office for the triduum mortis Domini is of ancient date; already the First Ordo Romanus contains certain rules for its re­ cital.85 \s it is now, it was fixed by St. Pius V (1568) and Pius X has shortened it in its latter sections and changed certain psalms. It is the same for the secular and monastic Breviary. The great mystery of the Passion, and especially the repose of the Saviour in the tomb, the leaving of the bridegroom, is the central idea of the liturgy. The gradual extinction of the candles reminds the observer of the receding faith of the disciples—only one light remaining, Christ. The tapping or rapping on the books or stalls is symbolical of the bursting of the rocks. In the “Lamentations" the Church weeps over the dcicidal city and the fate of sinful ** souls. In this country the "Tenebrae” are recited as follows.®7 1. Preparation. At the altar, the carpet, a violet altar-veil, six candlesticks with brown wax candles; the Blessed Sacrament is to be removed to another altar if it is usually kept at the principal altar. The altar cards also should be removed. In the place where the epistle is sung, is set up a triangular candlestick, with fifteen candles of unbleached wax, and a rod with the proper instrument to extinguish them. In the middle of the sanctuary is a bookstand for the lessons. 2. From the Commencement to the End of the Office. At the ap­ pointed hour, the candles pn the altar and those on the triangular ** See Hartmann, /. c., p. 233 f. 05 Baumer, /. c., j>. 332 f. ** Thalhofcr, /. e., II, p. 547 f· 07 Sec Ceremonial, 8th ed., 1894, P- 233 f. ι68 THE DIVINE OFFICE candlestick are lighted, and, at a signal given by the master of ceremonies, the clergy leave the sacristy. When they have arrived at their places in the sanctuary, they all kneel down for a while and say in secret the "Apcri Domine”; then they arise and recite in secret the "Pater,” the "Ave,” and the "Credo.” At a signal from the presiding clergyman, the chanters sing the anthem, “Zelus domus”; after which they sing the psalm and all sit down. The “Gloria Patri” is not said at the end of every psalm, but the anthem is immediately repeated. At the end of the first psalm, the acolyte appointed to pul out the candles puts out the last candle on the triangle at the Gospel side; at the end of the second, he extinguishes that on the epistle side, and so on, at the end of each psalm, leaving lighted only the candle at the top of the triangle. After the verses at the end of the third psalm and anthem of each nocturn, the clergy rise and say "Pater noster,” at the close of which they sit down and cover their heads. In the meanwhile the master of ceremonies invites the clergyman who is to sing the first lamentation, by bowing to him; he then places himself at his left and accompanies him to the bookstand, where both make a genuflection and bow to the clergy. Then the lamentation is sung, without asking the blessing and without “Tu autem” at the end. Afterwards they make a genuflection, bow to the clergy, and the master of ceremonies accompanies the singer back to his place and bows to him. The same is done for each lesson. Whilst the singers begin the “Benedictus,” all rise and stand till they begin to sing "Christus.” At the verse "Ut sine timore” the same acolyte extinguishes the last candle on the Gospel side; at the verse “In sanctitate” that at the epistle side, and so at each of the follow­ ing verses, alternately. Whilst the "Benedictus” is sung, all the lights in the church are put out, except the lamps before the Blessed Sacrament. When the anthem of the “Benedictus” is repeated, the top candle is taken from the triangular candlestick by the acolyte, who carries it to the epistle side and holds it lighted at the corner of the altar. When the choir begins to sing “Christus factus est,” he hides it be­ hind the altar. PUBLIC RECITATION 169 At the beginning of “Christus,” etc., all kneel and say in secret, “Paler noster." Then the psalm “Miserere" is either recited or sung, at the end of which the presiding clergyman recites, without “Ore­ mus,” the prayer “Respice quaesumus,” but says, in a low and in­ audible voice, “Qui tecum vivit,” etc. At the end of the prayer, the celebrant taps his book with his hand, and the others do likewise; then the lighted candle is brought from under the altar, and all rise and depart in silence, after the usual genuflection. The same ceremonial is to he observed on the two following days, except that the altar is without a cloth, veil, or carpet, having only the cross anti six candlesticks upon it. 10. Office of the Dead In the early centuries of the Church the custom of celebrating funeral ceremonies with psalms, lessons, and prayers was universal. The first celebration was on the dies depositionis or day of death. The third day was celebrated to symbolize the resurrection, some­ times also the ninth, because the Roman week had nine days and there were believed to be nine choirs of angels. But the seventh day, as expressive of the Sabbath rest, prevailed?8 The thirtieth day appears to be a reminiscence of the Old Law.”9 The anniversary was generally observed. After Clugny (St. Odilo) had given rhe impetus to the solemn commemoration of the dead, the Office of All Souls’ Day became a permanent custom throughout the Western Church. It was recited on each free day of every month. St. Pius V reformed this Office70 and Pius X gave it the form it now has. A remarkable Office is that for All Souls’ Day, commencing with the first Vespers and extending to the Vespers of the next day (Nov. 2) exclusively. No other Office is recited on that day, and even the Lillie Hours, Prime, Tierce, Scxt, None, arc part of the Office, with a structure of their own. The manner of publicly saying or chanting the Office for the eiEcdi. 22, 13. Deponere—to deliver the body to the earth. 60 Sec Deut. 34, 8. 70 Thalhotcr, Z. c., 11, 502 fl. i7o THE DIVINE OFFICE Dead is set forth in the Breviary as well as in the Roman Ritual; in the latter in connection with burial. 1. The Office for the Dead may be said whenever the Requiem Mass is allowed.71 It includes Vespers, Matins, and Lauds. On Nov. ist, after the second Vespers of All Saints, inclusive of None, it is a complete Office in itself. Vespers contain five psalms with antiphons, versiclc, antiphon, '‘Magnificat,” repeated antiphon, and prayers. Thus also Lauds with the “Benedictus.” Matins has the invitatory, three psalms with antiphons, three lessons, thus repeated three times, viz., nine psalms and nine lessons, if said in full. 2. The entire Office is obligatory on All Souls’ Day. Outside of this occasion there is no strict obligation to recite it, although the Ritual seems to insinuate that the full Office should be said on the day of the exequies.72 On the third, seventh, thirtieth and anniversary day as a rule only one nocturn is said.73 3. On the day of the funeral, on the day when the notice of death is received, on the third, seventh, thirtieth, and the anniversary day, though these days may not exactly fall on the respective number of the day, and as often as the Office is solemnly performed, the antiphons arc duplicated. At the end of the psalms are recited the words: “Requiem aeternam dona cis, Domine. Et lux perpetua luceat eis” (plural), even though the Office is said for but one.7* 4. At Vespers the “Pater” and “Ave,” and ar Matins the “Pater,” the “Ave,” and the “Credo” are usually recited; but they are omit­ ted if Vespers and Matins are recited immediately after the body is brought to the church and the responsory “Subvenite” is said, or if they arc recited immediately after Matins and Lauds of the day.75 5. The invitatory is said as often as either the whole Office or only one nocturn is doubled; otherwise it is omitted. The first nocturn, if only one is said, is assigned to Sunday, Monday, and Thursday; 71 Thus it is net permitted during Forty Hours' Adoration: S.R.C., Feb. 8, 1879, ad Π (n. 3479)· 72 Tn. VI, cap. 3, n. 19: but it admits a departure from this rule for a reasonable cause. Where there art only one or two clergymen, the recital is manifestly impos­ sible. But it may oblige by reason of a legacy or benefice. 7> Religious Orders and Congregations have their special rules» which, however, generally oblige only the choir as such, and not the single members. 74 Rit. Rom., tit. Vi, cap. 4. ™ IM. PUBLIC RECITATION 171 the second, to Tuesday and Friday; the third, to Wednesday and Saturday.76 6. The psalms “Lauda anima” at Vespers and “De profundis" at Lauds are not said on the funeral day nor at any time when the antiphons are doubled. 7. Concerning the rite or method of saying the Office for the Dead, the following rules should be observed: a) If the body is not present in the church, as on All Souls’ Day and on the third, etc., day, a catafalque,77 or at least a black cloth should be placed in the middle either of the sanctuary or of the choir. The antipendium of the altar is black, the veil of the taber­ nacle is purple, the six candles around the tumba as well as those on the altar arc unbleached. b) The celebrant, vested in surplice, black stole, and cope, ap­ proaches the altar with two acolytes carrying candlesticks with burning candles, the master of ceremonies and two chanters, unless the choir sings the Office. After the usual genuflections the cele­ brant goes to his place, and all recite the “Pater” and “Ave" if required, and then the chanters begin the first antiphon of Vespers and intone the first psalm. Thereupon all the clergy—which also means the monks—sit till the beginning of the “Magnificat,” when they rise. The acolytes take their candlesticks, make a genuflection, and go before the celebrant. The antiphon is repeated, and all the clergy, except the acolytes, kneel; the celebrant says the “Pater noster” and the other prescribed prayers.78 If Vespers arc recited by the choir, the mode is the same as that for any other Office, ex­ cept that the chorales should be seated. c) At Matins, when solemnly sung, the celebrant, etc., are vested as above, and go to the altar as described. Two chanters sing the invitatory, “Regem cui,” etc., and the choir answers. At the “Venite adoremus” all genuflect. Then the antiphons arc intoned by the chanters, who also intone the psalms and versicles. Then follows, silently, the “Pater noster,” and a reader recites the three lessons, “ibid. 77 Hartmann, I. c., p. Sii. The catafalque is always and for all persons so placed that the head is turned towards the door of the church. (M;W.) 7S Sec Ceremonial for the U. S., p. 209. The Roman Ritual (tit. VI, cap. 4) gives □II the various prayers, also the musical notes for the antiphons and psalms. *72 THE DIVINE OFFICE after each of which the responsory is either sung or recited by the choir. Thus for all three nociurns. After the last responsory the bookstand should be removed. d) The Lauds begin immediately after the Matins are finished, and the first antiphon is sung by the chanters, who then intone the psalm and arc answered by the choir. Thus all five psalms arc chanted while the clergy are silting. At the “Benedictus" all rise and bless themselves. At the "Pater nosier” and prayers all genuflect. At the end, two chanters sing the "Requiescat in pace"—in the singular if the Office is for one only, otherwise in the plural, “Requiescant.” 78 it. The Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary {Officium Parvum B.V.M.) This Office is liturgical, since the Church has imposed it as official prayer on some religious Congregations and received it into the Breviary. Its origin is somewhat obscure, but substantially it appears to date back to the eighth or ninth century. Peter the Deacon of Monte Cassino reports that this Office was recited besides the regular one as early as in the time of Gregory II (715-731) or Zachary (741-752). Pope Urban II is said to have imposed the Little Office on all clerics. However this may be, it is a historic fact that some religious Orders, like the Carthusians, Cistercians, etc., introduced the Little Office into their daily prayers. St. Pius V reformed it, and in this altered shape it entered the Roman Breviary. But its re­ cital was left to the good will of the clergy, without any obligation, unless there was a canonical title or religious constitution which bound in justice.80 As to the mode of .reciting the Little Office we refer the reader to the latest (1924) edition of the “Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary” by a Master of Novices.81 It may be added that the rubrics direct that if the officiating clergyman is not al least a deacon, the "Domine exaudi,” etc., is substituted in place of the “Dominus 79 Rit. Roman., I. c.; Wappclhorst, I. c., p. 521 i., n. 361. 80 See Thalhofer, /. c., II. p. 4S5 f. 61 Ed. 1924. Also Office g/ the.Blessed Virgin Mary, by E. Cunnniskcy, 1893· PRIVATE RECITATION OF THE BREVIARY 173 vobiscum” at all hours, consequently also in the “Little Office" as chiefly said in lay institutes. § 2. Private Recitation of the Breviary 1. The general rubrics of the “Ordinary” as well as of the “Psal­ ter,” must be observed according to the rules given in the "Ordo.” But whenever the “Confiteor” is to be recited, it is only said once, as printed in the official editions of the secular as well as mo­ nastic Breviaries.82 Also in the choirs of nuns (moniales) the “Con­ fiteor” is recited only once. However, the “Dominus vobiscum" with the answer must not be omitted, because the Office is recited in the name of the Church. 2. If two or more recite the Office together, the “Pater,” the “Ave,” and the “Credo” arc recited silently by each one for himself, except the “Pater nosier” at the “preces," Vespers and Lauds, when said in a loud voice by one and silently by the others. The invita­ tory, hymn, psalms, canticle, responsories, preces are said alter­ nately. The antiphons are recited together, the lessons are recited either by one or alternately by all the participants. The foreman re­ cites the beginning, chapter, oration, and ending, which is con­ cluded by the anthem of the B. V. Mary. 3. Concerning the bodily attitude and gestures, it may be said that any decent position is in order: standing, sitting, kneeling. The sign of the cross as well as the inclinations and genuflections may be made, but arc not obligatory.83 § 3. Who Are Obliged to Say the Office i. The Code rules: All clerics in higher orders arc bound in con­ science to recite the entire official or canonical hours every day ac­ cording to their own and the approved liturgical books/4 There­ fore, from subdeaconship upwards all clerics of the Latin Church *2Thc rubrics say: “extra chorum, si unus vel cluo recitent officium;” therefore the “Confiteor” only once. 83 Sec Hartmann, I. c., p. 241 f. MCan. 135- 174 THE DIVINE OFFICE arc obliged sub gravi to say the Office according to their own Breviary. Exception is made only in the case of clerics who have been reduced to the lay state or lawfully freed from this obligation by a competent judge.85 Up to the time of the Code there was no universal law which obliged all clerics in higher orders to recite the Breviary. Benedict XIV deduces the obligation of private recita­ tion of the Divine Office for all clerics in higher orders from “an­ cient tradition and immemorial custom,” rather than from any written text, and adds that the Oriental Church has no law to that effect. 2. Concerning religious, the Code prescribes as follows: All reli­ gious, whether male or female, who arc obliged to choir service, arc bound to perform the Office daily in every house in which there are at least four members who arc not lawfully prevented, and even fewer, if the constitutions so prescribe.86 On the other hand, single members, as such, are not obliged to choir service, at least not sub gravi, unless the rule or constitutions or the laws of foundation oblige them, or if the Office could not be performed for lack of a sufficient number, or one would cause scandal to others by his absence. 3. As to Sisters with simple votus, these arc obliged to choir serv­ ice only if their constitutions, approved by the Holy See, make it a duty. This holds also for all Tcrtiarics, including Benedictine Sisters.87 4. Concerning tingle members, the Code rules that men or women with solemn vows are obliged to the private recitation of the Divine Office if they have been absent from choir; lay Brothers and Sisters arc not so obliged.88 If the constitutions oblige lay Brothers (and Sisters) to the recitation of the Little Office of the B. V. Mary, this obligation does not entail a strict duty.89 5. The S. Congregation of the Sacraments is competent to grant a dispensation from the obligation of saying the Office.90 Ordinaries 85 Can. 213; 214» 5 i. In case they were ordained under constraint» compulsion, or grave fear. ** Can. 6jo, ξ I. Sec our Commentary, Vol. HI, pp. 326 f. Can. 670, 5 3. S. C. EE. Ct RR.. Jan. 29, 1906 (Anal. Eccl., XIV» p. 209). 00 Can. 246, f 3. PRIVATE RECITATION OF THE BREVIARY 175 may grant it only in accordance with Can. 81. This also holds with regard to superiors of exempt religious institutes.0’ Formerly our American bishops obtained from the Apostolic See the faculty to commute this duty into saying the fifteen decades of the Rosary. The formulary of 1922 contains no such faculty; hence it must be looked upon as abrogated. But the Formula Tertia (major) of the S.C. of the Propaganda still imparts this faculty.92 For the rest, we must refer the reader to the moralists. Can. 198. $ i. 52 “Concedendi ut ob legitimam gravernque rationem . . . loco Divini Officii ro· sarium vd aliae preces recitari possint;' * η. 42. Title III THE HOLY EUCHARIST The center of the sacred liturgy, to which lhe Divine Office leads, is the Holy Eucharist, in which Christ the Lord, Himself, is con­ tained, offered, and received under the species of bread and wine.1 The Code, according to the twofold aspect of this Sacrament (/« fieri and in jacto esse) treats the Holy Eucharist as a Sacrifice and as a Sacrament instituted for the spiritual life of lhe faithful. This schema is here followed for the sacred liturgy. 1 Can. 8ox. Chapter I THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS It would be outside our sphere to enter upon the dogmatical ques­ tions connected with the Mass. Nor arc the various purposes of the Mass (praise, thanksgiving, propitiation, and petition) or the fruits thereof really linked with the liturgy. Suffice it to say that the fruits proper are generally divided into four species, viz.: (a) the universal fruits, which accrue to the whole Church, in fact to all men {fructus universales)} (b) the special fruits, received by those who are pres­ ent either in mind or body {fructus speciales)} (c) the more par­ ticular fruits, received by the celebrant {fructus specialissimi)} (d) the ministerial fruits, obtained by those for whom the Holy Mass is applied in a special manner {fructus ministeriales).2 ARTICLE I HISTORICAL EXPLANATIONS I. The name Mass (“missa”) has become the proper term for the Latin liturgy. Its meaning and derivation are now commonly ac­ cepted. “Missa” is a late Latin form of “missio” and originally meant dismissal. As there was a dismissal of the catechumens, so, after Communion, there was a dismissal of the faithful (“Ite missa est”). The disappearance of the discipline of the catechumcnate made a distinction between two missae meaningless, and we now find the word used for the whole function. The Leonine as well as the Gelasian Sacramcntarics employ it in our sense. At the beginning there were other terms used to signify what we now style Mass, e.g.: “fractio panis,” Breaking of the Bread; “Cacna Domini,” the Lord’s Supper; “Eucharistia,” Thanksgiving; 2TbaIhofer, /. r., II, p. 12 ff.; N. Gihr, The Holy Sacrifice of the Mass, 1927, PP· 148 ff. k may be added that various authors have a different nomenclature for the different kinds of fruits—a mere distinction in terms. 179 i8o THE HOLY EUCHARIST “oblatio,” offering. The whole service was called “synaxis” (col­ lecta) or meeting; “liturgy" in the sense of public service; “Com­ munion” or common action or fellowship at the Lord's table.3 2. No doubt can reasonably be entertained that the essential fea­ tures of the Mass arc of Apostolic origin. The Roman Mass, espe­ cially in the Canon, has certain peculiarities which separate it from all Eastern liturgies, indeed, we may say from every other rite in Christendom.45 Many attempts have been made to explain the dis­ crepancies, but none has smoothed away all difficulties. It is nor our purpose to enter upon this intricate question; suffice it to say that the greatest obscurity besets the time from the third to the seventh century. 3. The Roman Mass commenced to exert its influence through­ out Western Europe at the time of St. Gregory the Great (d. 604). It was adopted in France with some traits of the Gallican rite.® Charlemagne was instrumental in bringing about conformity with the Roman rite. In Germany the mission of St. Boniface (d. 754?) meant the introduction of the Roman Mass. St. Augustine labored for the same purpose among the Britons, who, however, adopted it only towards the end of the eighth century. In Scotland and Ire­ land the Celtic rite lingered on to the eleventh and twelfth cen­ turies. Spain and Milan showed the greatest opposition to the Ro­ man rite. In the former country the Mozarabic rite is still in use in some parishes of Toledo and in one chapel at Salamanca, owing to die influence of the famous Cardinal Ximenes. Milan has upheld the Ambrosian rite up to this jjay, though actually the Roman rite has long invaded the suffragan secs and even to some extent the arch­ diocese itself/’ 4. However, the Roman Mass also received some additions, from Gaul, Jerusalem, and the East. The additions arc, first and in gen­ eral, decorative or symbolical rites. The pure Roman rite was 3 Sec Fortescue, The Mass, 1912, pp. 397 fi. 4 Ibid., p. 110. There also, from p. 138 to 169, may be found some explanations. 5 The Gallican Mass is well described in Duchesne-McClure, Christian Worship, pp. ! 89 fl. e Fortescue, /. c.t pp. 178 fl. A commission has lately been appointed for the study of the Ambrosian Rite. THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS 181 austerely simple; nothing was done except for some reason of prac­ tical utility. Its prayers were short and dignified, but might be called almost bald in comparison with the exuberant rhetoric of the East. Long rhetorical prayers full of allusions, symbolic ceremonies, and such things arc later additions foreign to the genius of the orig­ inal Roman rite. In our Missal we have from non-Roman sources the decorative processions, blessings, and much of the ritual of Holy Week. The prayers said at the fool of the altar arc in their present form the latest part of the entire rite. They developed out of the medieval private preparations and were not formally as­ signed to their present place in the missal before Pius V (1570). The “Gloria” was at first sung only on feasts and al bishops’ Masses. Il is probably of Gallican origin. The Creed came to Rome in the eleventh century. The Offertory prayers and the Lavabo were in­ troduced from beyond the Alps, hardly before the fourteenth cen­ tury. The “Placeat,” the benediction, and the Last Gospel were in­ troduced gradually in the course of the Middle Ages.7 5. The Council of Trent finally endeavored to make the Roman Mass uniform everywhere. Pope Pius V published his reformed missal by the Bull “Quo primum” on July 14, 1570. Its title was: "MissaleRomanum ex * decreto SS. Concilii Tridentini restitutum." The Pontiff commands that this missal alone be used wherever the Roman rite is followed. Pius X by his Constitution “Divino afflatu,” Nov. i, 1911, again reformed the Missal, and Benedici XV promul­ gated it. The full title now is: "Missale Romanum ex decreto SS. Concilii Tridentini restitutum—S. Pii V P. M. jussu editum—aliorum Pontificum cura recognitum—a Pio X reformatum et Ssmi. D. N. Benedicti XV auctoritate vulgatum." However, the structure of the Mass, and particularly the Canon, has not been changed. The "ad· ditiones et variationes in rubricis Missalis ad norman Bullae ‘Divino afflatu’ et subsequentibus S.R.C. Decretorum" affect only certain rubrics with regard to the Office of the day, the formularies for the different feast-days, the Mass for the Dead, the commemorations and orations, the Gloria and Prefaces, to which latter two new ones have 7 Fortescue. I. c.t p. >83 (. 8 Decree, Feb. 16» 1562» Sess. XVIII. i8î THE HOLY EUCHARIST been added. They arc the Preface of St. Joseph and that for Requiem Masses.0 Within the last five years two new Prefaces were added, one for the feast of “Christ the King,” and one for Mass in honor of the Sacred Heart. 6. Some explanation must be given of the phrase, different kinds of Masses, as it appears ambiguous.10 a) The first distinction is that between High Mass and Low Mass. High Mass is the original form of the Mass celebrated by the bishop or chief priest, at which other bishops or priests concclcbrated, the rest of the clergy and the laity merely assisting and re­ ceiving holy Communion. This was formerly done on all liturgi­ cal days, but chiefly on Sundays and such solemn feasts as were then celebrated. We hear nothing of a daily Mass in Rome until the sixth century. In any case, Mass was not said more than once a day before the Middle Ages—and it still was a High Mass. But by the ninth century, owing largely to the monastic custom of saying a definite number of Masses for the deceased members, the multiplication of Masses had progressed.11 This led to the abridged service we call Low Mass, viz., Mass without a choir, min­ isters, and assistance. Consequently, new Missals 12 had to he ar­ ranged with the full text of all parts of the Mass, which were not contained in the Sacramentaries, because the lessons and antiphons were not recited or sung by the celebrant. The ceremonies, on the other hand, were simplified, some were left out altogether, and every­ thing was said in a speaking voice. No definite date can be assigned for this innovation. b) There is also another distinction of some importance, viz., between public and private Masses, sometimes simply identified with the former division, so that High Mass would lx- public and low Mass private. Duchesne says: “At the Masses celebrated in chapels, cemeteries, presbyterial churches and even in the great basilicas, there were present, the stational days excepted, only a private congregation, consisting of a family or corporation, or the inhabitants of a quarter, or any kind of association of the faith0 For solemn religious profession there is a special one in the Monastic Missal. 10 See Thalhofcr, /. c., H, p. 317 ff.; Fortescue, I. c., p. 184 ff. 11 Isolated eases of daily celebration occur in the sixth century; Fortescue, /. c., p. 187. 12 Such a Missal was called Missale plenarium; Fortescue, /. c., p. 189. THE HOLY SACRIFICE OF THE MASS rS3 ful, whether resident or pilgrims. The Mass said on such occasions was a private Mass. The public Mass, that is to say, the stational Mass, was that in which the whole Roman Church was considered to take part.’’13 This would, to some extent, tally with our parish Mass as a public Mass, and the non-official Mass as a private Mass.14 The conventual Mass is the official Mass said in churches, cathedral, collegiate and religious, where the Office of the day has to be re­ cited publicly. c) An obvious distinction is that between “Missa cantata” and "Missa lecta” The former is of a somewhat obscure origin and was probably an expedient to have some solemnity without the sacred ministers and the usual accessories of a High Mass. The “Missa lecta” is one in which there is no singing and is by common con­ sent styled Low Mass. d) The Gelasian Sacramcntary contains formularies for Masses which were neither “de tempore” nor “de festo,” but adapted to certain occasions or individual wishes. Thus there were formularies "tempore belli,” “pro infirmis,’’ “in quacumque tribulatione," etc., or “pro sponso,” “natalibus,” etc. These were called Votive Masses, because offered according to the wish (votum) or intention of the special offerer.15 However this particular meaning cannot be ade­ quately attached to those Votive Masses which may be substituted on common days for the conventual Mass.16 This is the first class of Votive Masses in the New Missal. The second class of Votive Masses for diverse purposes (ad diversa) consists of Votive Masses in the stricter sense explained above. A Votive Mass may, therefore, be styled a Mass which docs not agree with the Office of the day. e) Requiem Masses are mentioned in the sources of the second and following centuries. During the persecutions and somewhat 13 Duchesne-McClure, /. c., p. 162; Thalhofer, /. c., II, p. 322 also stresses the pres­ ence of the officially assembled congregation, but adds the solemn celebration. 14 The Code of Canon Law (can. 2262, * 2) speaks of "Missam privatim appli­ care.” We say parish, not parochial, Mass, because the parish Mass is the one said for anti in the presence of the congregation; the parochial Mass is said for, but may be said in the absence of, the congregation. 15 Thalhofer, /. c., Π, 330. 10 The reason for this is to break the monotony of having the Sunday Mass every day of the week. It is the opinion of some that Votive Masses originated from the so-called refrigeria (Masses tor repose), since the 4th century; fahrbuch für LiturgieWurenschaft, 1923 (HI), p. 49. ï84 THE HOLY EUCHARIST later, they were celebrated in the cemetery chapels, but were rather of a private character, and repeated on the days when the Office was said.17 The so-called Gregorian Masses do not form part of the public liturgy.18 Mention may here be made of the custom of saying three Masses on All Souls’ Day; it is of Spanish origin, and was extended to the universal Church by Benedict XV, Aug. io, 1915. This is a privilege, not an obligation, just like saying three Masses on Christmas Day.10 For curiosity’s sake some other Masses, now happily out of prac­ tice, may be mentioned: Missa solitaria or solitary Mass, at which no one assisted; Missa sicca or dry Mass, consisting of prayers with­ out offertory, consecration, or communion. To this latter class be­ long the Missa nautica or Mass at sea and the Missa venatoria or hunters’ Mass. A serious abuse were the double and triple Masses, Missae bijaciatae and trifaciatae, in which the celebrant said Mass from the beginning to the Preface several times, then one canon for all. This was done to satisfy several intentions on one day and was plainly dishonest.20 ARTICLE it THE CELEBRATING PRIEST “Priests alone have the power to offer the Sacrifice of the Mass.” 21 Therefore clerics below the rank of priests, and a fortiori laymen, cannot say Mass cither validly or licitly. In order to prevent fraud and sacrilege the Church demands that a priest unknown to the rector of a church or chapel where he wishes to say Mass, be provided with a “Celebret.” This document should not be older than one year; in fact, strictly speaking, it should not be issued for more than six months. Orientals in addition need a testimonial from the S.C. for the Oriental Church.22 1T Thalhofcr, I. c., II, p. 324; see above. *See our Commentary, IV, 196. > 12 See can. 806. and our Commentary, IV, 134 f. 20 Fortescue, /. c., p. 192 f.; sec Codex Juris Can., Can. 825, 4 3; Can. 828; The Missa Sicca (Dry Mass) is mentioned in the XHth century, due to the prohibition of more than one Mass on the same day, Joh. Prinsk in Jahhrb. f. Lit.-Wiss., 1924 (IV), pp. 90 fl. 21 Can. 802. 22 Can. 804; see our Commentary, IV, 128 it. THE CELEBRATING PRIEST 185 Concélébration Concélébration takes place if two or more priests consecrate the same bread and wine or, as at the consecration of a bishop, two hosts and the same wine in one chalice. It is, therefore, not a mere recital of the same prayers in general, and of the formula of con­ secration in particular, but a distinct rite. It is one sacrifice at which all communicate. This ancient custom is witnessed in the Apostolic Constitutions. It was in vogue in Rome as late as the time of Innocent III (1198-1216), but soon afterwards only in a limited way.23 The Code limits it thus: “Concélébration is not al­ lowed to several priests except at the ordination of priests and the consecration of bishops according to the Roman Pontifical.” 24 This rule is law for the Latin Church only; the Oriental Church still adheres to the ancient practice. Obligation of Saying Mass “All priests arc obliged to say Mass several times a year. But the bishop as well as the religious superior ought to see to it that the priests subject to their jurisdiction celebrate the Sacred Mysteries at least on all Sundays and holydays of obligation.” 25 This holds only with regard to priests as such. For the office of pastor requires that he serve the parish according to the needs and reasonable demands of the faithful, and that of beneficiary that he comply with the obligations imposed on him by the statutes, the will of the founder, and the intention of the donors. Binating With the exception of Christmas and All Souls’ Day, on which every priest may say three Masses if he wishes, no priest is allowed to say more than one Mass a day, unless a papal induit or a faculty from his Ordinary permits him to do so. The Ordinary cannot grant this faculty unless he prudently judges that there is such a lack of priests as to leave a considerable number of the faithful 23 Thalbofer, I. c., II, 319. 24 Can. 803· 25 Can. 805. Priests should mention this canon from the pulpit, for not a few pious Catholics arc under the impression that every priest is obliged to say Mass daily. ι86 THE HOLY EUCHARIST without Mass on a holyday of obligation. No Ordinary can give permission to a priest to say more than two Masses on the same day. (Can. 806.) There are no early historical documents to prove that two or more Masses were said on a feast or any other day, though a spu­ rious text ascribes the custom to Pope Telcsphorus (125-136?). The introduction of the Low Mass promoted the saying of several Masses, and abuses soon made it imperative to restrict the practice.21'’ We need not repeat or correct what we have said elsewhere of the con­ ditions under which bination is allowed.27 The conditions, viz.: (a) lack of priests, (b) the convenience of the people, (c) holyday of obligation, arc plainly laid down in the Code. As to the rubrics to be observed by the binating priest, the S.R.C. on March 11, 1858, issued an instruction regarding (a) celebration in two different churches, and (b) in the same church.28 We shall give the substance thereof: a) After having consumed the sacred blood, the celebrant places the chalice upon the corporal and covers it with the pall. There­ upon be recites the prayer, “Quod ore sumpsimus.” Then he washes his fingers in a special bowl, meanwhile reciting the “Cor­ pus tuum.” After that he removes the pall from the chalice, covers it with the purificator, paten, pall, and velum, and continues the Mass. After the last gospel he stands in the middle of the altar and uncovers the chalice in order to see whether a drop of the sacred Blood has gathered there. If this is the case, he consumes it, then pours as much water into the chalice as there was wine, rinses the chalice, and pours the water into a special vessel, cleanses the chal­ ice, covers it, and leaves the altar. The ablution may be preserved for the next day or absorbed in cotton and burned or poured into the sacrarium. b) If the priest says the second Mass in the same church, he shall, after having carefully sipped die sacred Blood in the first 20 See c. 53, dist. i, de Cons.; c. 12» X, III, 41; also Collationes Brugenses, Jan.Feb., 1929» XXIX. pp. 64 if. But the author appears to be too rigid concerning the presence of another priest in the town or city. This would render the use of the faculty on the part of the pastor rather irksome. 27 See our Commentary, IV, 136 If. It is printed in the Rituale Rom., Appendix, cd. Pustcl, 1926, pp. 504 f. Why not in the New Missal? THE CELEBRATING PRIEST 187 Mass, leave the chalice covered with the pall upon the altar and recite the “Quod orc.” Then he shall wash his fingers in a special bowl, say the "Corpus tuuin,” and cover the chalice with the velum, leaving it on the corporal. /\ftcr Mass he shall carry the chalice into the sacristy, if there is one, place it in a closed cup­ board, and leave it there until the second Mass. At the Offertory of the second Mass he shall not remove the chalice from the corporal at the oblation of the bread, nor clean it with the purificator, nor wipe off the drops of wine inside the chalice, but take care, in pouring the wine into the chalice, that no drops adhere to the in­ side of the chalice. Preparation for Mass There is a remote and a proximate preparation required for the worthy celebration of the august Sacrifice. The remote preparation consists in the state of grace and fasting, the proximate, in pious exercises immediately preceding Mass. a) Concerning the state of grace the Code says: No priest who is conscious of a mortal sin should dare to say Mass without hav­ ing first gone to confession, even though he might think to have made an act of perfect contrition. If no “copia confessarii" is at hand, and the celebration of Mass is urgent, the priest should make an act of perfect contrition and say Mass, then go to confession as soon as possible, i. e., within three days. The term “quamprimum” indicates not a mere counsel, but a precept, provided, of course, there is a "copia confessarii.'’29 b) As to fasting, the law says that a priest is not allowed to cele­ brate Mass unless he has observed the natural fast from midnight on.30 Can. 33, § 1 may here be recalled. It permits the priest to fol­ low any of the five different reckonings of time mentioned there in observing the law of fasting. This may also be applied to the case in question.31 39 Can. S07. The Missal ("Ritus Servandus" 1, 1) says: “Sacerdos celebraturus Missam praevia confessione sacratncmali, quando opus est. . . .” 30 Can. 808. Si See J. Lacou, De Ten;pore, «92>, p. 40: “Licet modo unurn [tempus] sequi, modo aliud; sive altero die unum, altero die aliud . . . dummodo haec variatio non inducat certae legis violationem"; see our Commentary, IV, 141 f. x88 THE HOLY EUCHARIST c) The proximate preparation consists of spiritual exercises, of which the Code says: “The priest should not omit to prepare him­ self for the celebration of the Eucharistic Sacrifice by pious pray­ ers.” 32 The Missal says that Matins and Lauds should be said be­ fore Mass, and the prayers printed in the Missal recited, if lime permits.33 Intention and Application of the Mass Connected with the preparation is the intention which deter­ mines the priest to do what the Church wishes him to do. This is the virtual intention, implied in the very fact that he prepares him­ self for saying Mass and puts on the sacred vestments, no matter how distracted or even disturbed he may be, provided he does not elicit a positive act to the contrary.34 There is another mental act, also called intention, but more properly styled application, of which the Code says: “A priest may apply the Mass for the living as well as for the dead who expiate their faults in Purgatory, with some exceptions mentioned.” 35 This is the application of the ministerial fruit, for which, according to a time-honored custom, the priest is allowed to accept the customary stipend.30 Concerning these stipends the Code explicitly demands that no trafficking or dishonesty be committed, that the acces­ sory stipulations be observed, and that an accurate record be kept by the priest and the superior.37 The exception alleged above con­ cerns persons excommunicated, whom the law excludes from the benefit of having Masses said for them.38 However, if no scandal is given, a priest may say Mass privately for an excommunicated person, either living or dead; but if the latter is a (living) “vitandus,” only for his conversion.30 32 Can. 8io. 33 Ritus Srrv., I, I. 34 See Missale Rom.. "De defectibus," VI, 4. 35 Can. 809. 30 Can. 824» 5 1. 37 Can. 824-844; see our Commentary, IV, 175 ff. 38 Can. 2262, § 2. sdSee our Commentary, IV, 143 fl. For one who died as a "vitandus,” Mass may not be offered» unless the excommunication has been removed by absolution "post mortem." TIME AND PLACE OF CELEBRATING MASS 189 ARTICLE III TIME AND PLACE OF CELEBRATING MASS Days and Hours I. “Holy Mass may be celebrated on all days, except those on which the respective rite forbids the priest to say it.” 40 In the Latin Church only the three last days of Holy Week have certain pro­ hibitory restrictions. On Maundy Thursday one solemn Mass should be celebrated in all the churches where the Blessed Sacra­ ment is preserved and the liturgical functions arc performed at least according to the “Memoriale Rituum" of Benedict XIII. In churches where, on account of the lack of clerics or servers, the sacred ceremonies cannot be duly held, the bishop may grant per­ mission to the priests to say a low Mass for the convenience of the people. On Good Friday only one “Missa Praesanctificatorum” may be celebrated, and priests who have two parishes to attend to, arc not allowed to binate on that day. On Holy Saturday only one solemn Mass may be celebrated in churches in which the liturgical functions of Holy Week arc carried out. In small or poor parishes a Low Mass may be said if custom permits; but neither a local nor a personal induit permits private Masses to be said in churches which arc not parish churches. Concerning religious communities enough was said above.41 Mass should not begin earlier than one hour before dawn, nor later than one hour after noon.12 Therefore, a priest is allowed to begin Mass about two hours and a half before sunrise.' * 2 The bishop may permit Mass, especially on a solemn occasion, to be pro­ tracted until after 2 p. m.; but he is not empowered to forbid the saying of Mass before sunrise. In countries where there is hardly any dawn, as in the polar regions, Mass may commence about the time people arise and go to work. On Christmas night only the conventional or parochial Mass may 40 Can. 820. 41 Sec Title I. pp. 26 £.; our Commentary, IV, 163 if. 42 Can. 821, Si. 43 Whether daylight saving time is to be considered in this connection by religious who claim a privilege to anticipate seems doubtful. rço THE HOLY EUCHARIST be commenced at midnight to the exclusion of every other Mass not granted by special Apostolic induit. On Christmas night, in all religious or pious houses which possess an oratory with the faculty of habitually keeping the Holy Eucharist, one priest may say one or three Masses according to the rubrics. Those who assist thereat comply with the obligation of hearing Mass, and Holy Communion may be administered to those who desire to receive it. The moment at which Mass may be begun on Christmas is the hour of mid­ night, not before. Hence it would be an abuse to commence Mass so early that the priest would be at the gospel or elevation when the clock struck twelve. There is no strict obligation to commence at midnight, for the service may be postponed if there is an im­ pediment. But the rubrics require that those bound to say public office, like cathedral chapters and most of the regulars, sing Matins before the Mass and Lauds after it. This order may not be changed on Christmas day. The three Masses must be said according to the rubrics, i.e., as they follow each other in the Missal, and not all three according to the formulary “pro Missa in Nocte.” But if a priesi (for instance, an assistant at the cathedral, who is also chap­ lain of a convent or hospital) says only one Mass, he is bound to observe what the law prescribes, “servatis servandis.” In other words, if he says but one Mass at midnight, he must say the other Masses according to the rubrical time, i.e., the second Mass not earlier than about 5:15 or 5:30 a.m., and the third, “de die,” after that. 2. The place where Mass may be licitly said is determined by the Code 11 as follows: “Mass must be celebrated upon a consecrated altar and in a consecrated or blessed church or oratory. The privilege of a portable altar is granted cither by law or by an induit of the Holy Sec. This privilege carries with it the faculty of celebrating Mass in any place, provided it be respectable and decent, and upon an altar stone; only celebration at sea is excluded. The local Ordinary, or, in the case of an exempt religious house, the higher superior, may grant permission so say Mass outside a church or oratory, upon a conse­ crated altar stone, provided the place is decent (no bed-room) and the permission is granted for a just and reasonable cause, for extraordi«♦ Can. 822. RITES AND CEREMONIES OF THE MASS 191 nary cases only, and not habitually." Priests arc not allowed to say Mass in churches of heretics and schismatics, even though these buildings may have been consecrated or blessed. A Latin priest may celebrate Mass on a consecrated altar of another rite, but not upon a Greek “antcmcnsion." These antcmcnsia arc not altar stones, but consecrated sheets of linen, and hence do not come up to the requirements of die Latin Church. Without a special induit no one is allowed to say Mass on a papal altar. ARTICLE IV RITES AND CEREMONIES OF THE MASS The Holy Sacrifice of the Mass must be offered in bread and wine, and with the latter must be mixed a few drops of water.45 i. The bread must be of pure wheaten flour and freshly baked, so that no corruption need be feared.40 The Jews prepared their “mazzoth” (Easter cakes) from the purest wheat and Our Lord certainly used the same material to indicate the spotless oblation (minchah). The round form, too, appears to be an imitation of a Jewish custom and was always observed in the Latin Church. But the size grew smaller after the oblation in specie ceased. The host for Mass and exposition in the ostensorium should be from two to three inches and the particles for distribution about one inch in diameter. The altar breads should be neither too thick nor too thin. No image or symbol, except that of Christ, is allowed on the hosts.17 No accessories arc al­ lowed to be mingled with the wheat.48 Nor should the altar breads be older than fourteen days.49 As to accessories, salt or yeast might be considered. But the law rules: “The priest in celebrating the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass, whenever he says Mass, must use cither un­ leavened or leavened bread, according as his rite prescribes.” 50 This obligation is “gravis." Latin priests, at least since the eighth century, 45 Can. 814. , _