Disputed Question on the Cardinal Virtues
translated by Ralph McInerny
in Disputed Questions on Virtue,
St. Augustine’s Press, South Bend, Indiana, 1999
modified and html-edited by Joseph Kenny, O.P.
CONTENTS
- Et primo enim quaeritur, utrum prudentia, iustitia, fortitudo et temperantia sint virtutes cardinales.
- Secundo utrum virtutes sint connexae, ut qui habet unam habeat omnes.
- Tertio utrum omnes virtutes in homine sint aequales.
- Quarto utrum virtutes cardinales maneant in patria.
Articulus 1
Et primo quaeritur utrum istae sint quatuor virtutes cardinales, scilicet iustitia, prudentia, fortitudo et temperantiaArticle 1
Are prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance cardinal virtues?Et videtur quod non. And it seems that they are not. Ea enim quae non distinguuntur ad invicem, non debent ad invicem connumerari; quia distinctio est causa numeri, ut dicit Damascenus. Sed praedictae virtutes non distinguuntur ad invicem; dicit enim Gregorius in XXII Moral.: prudentia vera non est, quae iusta et temperans et fortis non est; nec perfecta temperantia, quae fortis, iusta et prudens non est; neque fortitudo integra, quae prudens, temperans et iusta non est; nec vera iustitia, quae prudens, fortis et temperans non est. Ergo non debent dici hae quatuor virtutes cardinales. 1. Things which are not distinct ought not to be numbered separately, since distinction is the cause of number, as Damascene says. But the virtues mentioned are not distinguished from one another, for Gregory says in the Morals on Job 22: Unless prudence is just and temperate and brave, it is not true prudence, nor is there perfect temperance which is not brave, just, and prudent, nor complete fortitude which is not prudent, temperate, and just, nor true justice which is not prudent, brave, and temperate. Therefore, these should not be called the four cardinal virtues. Praeterea, virtutes videntur dici cardinales, ex eo quod sunt aliis principaliores; unde quas quidam cardinales, aliquando principales vocant, ut patet per Gregorium, XXII Moralium. Sed cum finis principalior sit his quae sunt ad finem; principaliores esse videntur virtutes theologicae, quae habent ultimum finem pro obiecto, quam praedictae virtutes, quae sunt circa ea quae sunt ad finem. Ergo non debent dici praedictae quatuor virtutes cardinales. 2. Moreover, virtues seem to be called cardinal because they are principles of other virtues; hence, what some call cardinal, others call principal, as is clear in Gregory Morals on Job 22. But since the end is principal with respect to what is for the sake of the end, the theological virtues which have the ultimate end as their object would seem to have a better claim to be called principal than the virtues mentioned which bear on that which is for the sake of the end. Therefore, the virtues mentioned ought not be called the four cardinal virtues. Praeterea, ea quae sunt diversorum generum, non debent poni in una coordinatione. Sed prudentia est in genere virtutum intellectualium, ut patet in VI Ethic.: aliae vero tres sunt virtutes morales. Ergo inconvenienter ponuntur praedictae quatuor virtutes cardinales. 3. Moreover, things which belong to different genera ought not be placed in the same ordering. But prudence is in the genus of intellectual virtues, as is clear in Ethics 6 and the other three are moral virtues. Therefore, they are unfittingly called the four cardinal virtues. Praeterea, inter intellectuales virtutes sapientia est principalior quam prudentia, ut philosophus probat in VI Ethic.; quia sapientia est de divinis, prudentia autem est de humanis. Si igitur debuit aliqua virtus intellectualis poni inter virtutes cardinales, potius debuit poni sapientia quasi principalior. 4. Moreover, among the intellectual virtues wisdom is more principal than prudence, as the Philosopher proves in Ethics 6, because wisdom is concerned with divine things and prudence with human. Therefore, if any intellectual virtue is to be listed among the cardinal virtues, it should be the more principal one, that is, wisdom. Praeterea, ad virtutes cardinales aliae debent reduci. Sed philosophus in II Ethic. condividit quasdam alias virtutes fortitudini et temperantiae; scilicet liberalitatem et magnanimitatem et huiusmodi, quae sic non reducuntur. Non ergo praedictae virtutes sunt cardinales. 5. Moreover, other virtues ought to be reduced to the cardinal virtues. But the Philosopher in Ethics 2 opposes certain other virtues to fortitude and temperance, namely liberality and magnanimity and the like, which thus are not reduced to them. Therefore, the aforementioned are not cardinal virtues. Praeterea, illud quod non est virtus, non debet poni inter virtutes cardinales. Sed temperantia non videtur esse virtus. Non enim habetur aliis virtutibus habitis; ut patet in Paulo, qui habebat omnes alias virtutes, et tamen temperantiam non habebat: inerat enim adhuc in membris eius concupiscentia, secundum illud Rom., VII, 23: video aliam legem in membris meis repugnantem legi mentis meae. Temperatus autem differt in hoc a continente, quod temperatus non habet concupiscentias pravas; continens autem habet, sed non sequitur eas; ut patet per philosophum in VII Ethic. Ergo inconvenienter enumerantur praedictae quatuor cardinales virtutes. 6. Moreover, what is not a virtue should not be put among the cardinal virtues. But temperance does not seem to be a virtue, for it is not had when other virtues are had, as is clear in Paul who had all the other virtues yet did not have temperance, for concupiscence remained in his members according to Romans 7:23: “I see another law in my members, warring against the law of my mind.” The temperate man differs from the continent in this, that the temperate man does not have depraved desires, but the continent does, though he does not follow them, as is clear from the Philosopher in Ethics 6. Therefore, the foregoing are improperly enumerated as four cardinal virtues. Praeterea, sicut per virtutem homo ordinatur ad seipsum, ita et ad proximum. Sed duae virtutes ponuntur, quibus homo ordinatur ad seipsum; scilicet fortitudo et temperantia. Ergo etiam duae virtutes debent poni quibus aliquis ordinatur ad proximum; et non solum iustitia. 7. Moreover, just as a man is well-ordered in himself by virtue, so too is he well-ordered to his neighbor. But by two of these virtues a man is ordered to himself, namely, fortitude and temperance. Therefore, there should be two virtues by which he is ordered to his neighbor, and not only justice. Praeterea, Augustinus dicit in Lib. de moribus Eccles., quod virtus est ordo amoris. Sed amor gratiae comprehenditur sub duobus praeceptis; scilicet dilectionis Dei et proximi. Ergo non debent esse nisi duae virtutes cardinales. 8. Moreover, Augustine says in On the morals of the church that virtue is the order of love. But the love of grace is contained in two precepts, namely, love of God and love of neighbor. Therefore, there should be only two cardinal virtues. Praeterea, diversitas materiae quae est secundum extensionem, facit solum diversitatem secundum numerum; diversitas autem materiae quae est secundum diversas acceptiones formae, facit differentiam secundum genus: propter quod corruptibile et incorruptibile differunt genere, ut dicitur X Metaph. Sed praedictae virtutes differunt secundum diversitatem materiae habentis rationem diversam recipiendi formam. Nam modus rationis circa materiam temperantiae ponitur secundum refrenationem passionum; circa materiam autem fortitudinis secundum quemdam conatum ad id a quo passio retrahit. Ergo praedictae virtutes differunt genere; non ergo debent coniungi in una ordinatione virtutum cardinalium. 9. Moreover, the diversity of matter due to extension causes only numerical diversity. But the diversity of matter which is due to the reception of different forms causes a generic difference, on account of which the corruptible and incorruptible differ in genus, as is said in Metaphysics 10. But the virtues mentioned differ insofar as matter has a different way of receiving form. For the mode of reason in the case of the matter of temperance is to refrain the passions, but in the matter of fortitude to struggle toward that from which reason pulls away. Therefore, the virtues mentioned differ in genus and ought away. not to be conjoined in one order of cardinal virtues. Praeterea, ratio virtutis moralis sumitur secundum quod attingit rationem, ut patet per philosophum in II Ethicor., qui definit virtutem per hoc, quod est secundum rationem rectam. Sed ratio recta est regula regulata a prima regula quae est Deus; a qua etiam virtutem regulandi habet. Ergo virtutes morales praecipue habent rationem virtutis ex eo quod attingunt primam regulam, scilicet Deum. Sed virtutes theologicae, quae sunt circa Deum, non dicuntur cardinales. Ergo neque virtutes morales debent dici cardinales. 10. Moreover, the definition of virtue is based on the fact that it has to do with reason, as is clear from the Philosopher in Ethics 2, who defines virtue as being in accord with right reason. But right reason is a measured measure that is measured by the first measure, God, from whom reason has the power of regulating. Therefore, moral virtues have the note of virtue chiefly insofar as they attain the first measure, God, but the theological virtues, which are concerned with God, are not called cardinal. Therefore, moral virtues ought not be called cardinal. Praeterea, principalis pars animae est ratio. Sed temperantia et fortitudo non sunt in ratione, sed sunt irrationabilium partium, ut philosophus dicit in III Ethic. Ergo non debent poni virtutes cardinales. 11. Moreover, reason is the chief part of the soul, but temperance and fortitude are not in reason but in the irrational part, as the Philosopher says in Ethics 3. Therefore, they ought not be put among the cardinal virtues. Praeterea, laudabilius est dare de suo quam reddere vel non auferre alienum. Sed primum pertinet ad liberalitatem, secundum ad iustitiam. Ergo liberalitas magis debet poni virtus cardinalis quam iustitia. 12. Moreover, it is more laudable to use one’s own property than to give or take away another’s. But the first pertains to liberality and the second to justice. Therefore, liberality rather than justice ought rather to be called a cardinal virtue. Praeterea, illud maxime videtur esse virtus cardinalis quod est firmamentum aliorum. Sed huiusmodi est humilitas; dicit enim Gregorius, quod qui ceteras virtutes sine humilitate congregat, quasi pulveres in ventum portat. Ergo humilitas debuit poni inter virtutes cardinales. 13. Moreover, that which is the basis of others ought especially to be called a cardinal virtue. But humility is that, for Gregory says that he who has the other virtues without humility carries them as ashes in the wind. Therefore, humility ought to be numbered among the cardinal virtues. Praeterea, virtus est perfectio quaedam, ut patet per philosophum in VI Phys. Sed, sicut dicitur Iac., I, 4, patientia perfectum opus habet. Ergo patientia tamquam perfectio, poni debuit inter virtutes cardinales. 14. Virtue is a kind of perfection, as is clear from the Philosopher in Physics 6. But, as is said in James 1:4, patience has a perfect work. Therefore, as perfection patience ought to be numbered among the cardinal virtues. Praeterea, philosophus dicit in IV Ethic., quod magnanimitas operatur magnum in virtutibus, et est velut ornamentum aliis virtutibus. Sed hoc maxime videtur pertinere ad principalitatem virtutis. Ergo magnanimitas videtur esse virtus cardinalis. Inconvenienter igitur annumerantur praedictae quatuor virtutes cardinales. 15. Moreover, the Philosopher says in Ethics 6 that magnanimity does the most among the virtues and is as an ornament to the other virtues. But this especially seems to count toward a virtue’s being principal. Therefore, magnanimity seems to be a cardinal virtue and the foregoing are improperly accounted the four cardinal virtues. Sed contra, est quod Ambrosius dicit super illud Lucae, cap. VI: beati pauperes spiritu: scimus virtutes esse quatuor cardinales: temperantiam, iustitiam, prudentiam, fortitudinem. ON THE CONTRARY. Ambrose says in commenting on Luke 6, “Blessed are the poor in spirit,” that we know there are four cardinal virtues: temperance, justice, prudence, and fortitude. Respondeo. Dicendum, quod cardinalis a cardine dicitur, in quo ostium vertitur, secundum illud Proverb., XXVI, 14: sicut ostium vertitur in cardine suo, ita piger in lectulo suo. Unde virtutes cardinales dicuntur in quibus fundatur vita humana, per quam in ostium introitur; vita autem humana est quae est homini proportionata. RESPONSE. It should be said that ‘cardinal’ comes from the hinge on which a door swings, according to Proverb 26:14: “As a door turns on its hinges, so does the slothful on his bed.” Hence, cardinal virtues are those on which human life is founded, by which the gate may be entered; but human life is what is proportioned to man. In hoc homine autem invenitur primo quidem natura sensitiva, in qua convenit cum brutis; ratio practica, quae est homini propria secundum suum gradum; et intellectus speculativus, qui non perfecte in homine invenitur sicut invenitur in Angelis, sed secundum quamdam participationem animae. Ideo vita contemplativa non est proprie humana, sed superhumana; vita autem voluptuosa, quae inhaeret sensibilibus bonis, non est humana, sed bestialis. In man, however, there is found first a sensitive nature, in which he is like the brutes; then practical reason, which is proper to man according to his level; and speculative intellect, which is not found in man as perfectly as it is in the angels, but as a kind of participation on the part of the soul. Therefore, the contemplative life is not properly human but superhuman; the life of pleasure, however, by which one adheres to sensible goods, is not human but bestial. Vita ergo proprie humana est vita activa, quae consistit in exercitio virtutum moralium: et ideo proprie virtutes cardinales dicuntur in quibus quodammodo vertitur et fundatur vita moralis, sicut in quibusdam principiis talis vitae; propter quod et huiusmodi virtutes principales dicuntur. The properly human life is the active which consists in the exercise of the moral virtues; therefore, those virtues are properly called cardinal on which the moral life somehow turns and is based, as the principles of such a life, which is why these virtues are also called principal. Considerandum est autem, quod de ratione actus virtuosi quatuor existunt. Quorum unum est, ut substantia ipsius actus sit in se modificata; et ex hoc actus dicitur bonus, quasi circa debitam materiam existens, vel debitis circumstantiis vestitus. Secundum autem est, ut actus sit debito modo se habens ad subiectum, ex quo firmiter subiecto inhaereat. Tertium autem est, ut actus sit debito modo proportionatus ad aliquid extrinsecum sicut ad finem. Et haec quidem tria sunt ex parte eius quod per rationem dirigitur. Quartum autem ex parte ipsius rationis dirigentis, scilicet cognitio. Et haec quatuor philosophus tangit in II Ethic., ubi dicit, quod non sufficit ad virtutem quod aliqua sint iuste vel temperate comparata, quod pertinet ad modificationem actus. There are four things involved in the virtuous act. First, that the substance of this act is modified in itself. This is why the act is called good, as bearing on fitting matter or clothed with fitting circumstances. Second, the act must relate fittingly to the subject, that is, be firmly rooted. Third, the act must be fittingly proportioned to something extrinsic to it as an end. These three all follow from the fact that the virtuous act is directed by reason, but a fourth is taken from directing reason, namely, deliberation. The Philosopher touches on these four in Ethics 2 when he says that it does not suffice for virtue that things are justly or temperately done, which pertains to the modification of the act. Sed alia tria requiruntur ex parte operantis. Primum quidem, ut sit sciens; quod pertinet ad cognitionem dirigentem. Deinde, quod sit eligens et reeligens propter hoc, id est propter debitum finem; quod pertinet ad rectitudinem actus in ordine ad aliquid extrinsecum. Tertium est, si firme et immobiliter adhaereat et operetur. Haec igitur quatuor scilicet cognitio dirigens, rectitudo, firmitas et moderatio, etsi in omnibus virtuosis actibus requirantur; singula tamen horum principalitatem quamdam habent in specialibus quibusdam materiis et actibus. Three other things are required from the side of the agent. First, that he be knowing, which refers to the directing knowledge; then, that he should will and choose for the sake of this: This refers to the rightness of the act as ordered to something extrinsic. Third, that it be stable, such that it firmly and changelessly characterizes the agent and his act. Now these four, namely, directive knowledge, rightness, stability, and moderation, although they are required of every virtuous act, each has a kind of special importance in certain matters and acts. Ex parte cognitionis practicae tria requiruntur. Quorum primum est consilium: secundum est iudicium de consiliatis; sicut etiam in ratione speculativa invenitur inventio vel inquisitio, et iudicium. Sed quia intellectus practicus praecipit fugere vel prosequi, quod non facit speculativus intellectus, ut dicitur in III de anima; ideo tertio ad rationem practicam pertinet praemeditari de agendis; et hoc est praecipuum ad quod alia duo ordinantur. Circa primum autem perficitur homo per virtutem eubuliae, quae est bene consiliativa. Circa secundum autem perficitur homo per synesim et gnomen, quibus homo fit bene iudicativus, ut dicitur in VI Ethic. Sed per prudentiam fit ratio bene praeceptiva, ut ibidem dicitur. Unde manifestum est quod ad prudentiam pertinet id quod est praecipuum in cognitione dirigente; et ideo ex hac parte ponitur prudentia virtus cardinalis. Three things are required of practical knowledge. The first of which is deliberation, the second is judgment of what has been deliberated; of course, discovery, inquiry and judgment are also found in speculative reason. But because practical reason commands flight or pursuit, something speculative intellect does not do, a point made in On the Soul 3, a third note characterizes practical reason, namely, to ponder things which must be done. The other two are ordered to this as to what is principal in practical reason. What Aristotle calls eubulia – deliberating well – perfects a man in the first respect, and synesis and gnome enable a man to judge well, as is said in Ethics 6. But it is through prudence that reason is able to command well, as is said in that same place; so it is clear that what is most important in directive knowledge pertains to prudence, and this is why prudence is numbered among the cardinal virtues. Similiter rectitudo actus per comparationem ad aliquid extrinsecum, habet quidem rationem boni et laudabilis etiam in his quae pertinent ad unum secundum seipsum, sed maxime laudatur in his quae sunt ad alterum; quando scilicet homo actum suum rectificat non solum in his quae ad ipsum pertinent, sed etiam in his in quibus cum aliis communicat. Dicit enim philosophus in V Ethic., quod multi in propriis quidem virtute uti possunt, in his autem quae sunt ad alterum, non possunt. Et ideo iustitia ex hac parte ponitur virtus principalis, per quam homo debito modo coaptatur et adaequatur aliis, cum quibus communicare habet; unde et vulgariter dicuntur iusta illa quae sunt debito modo coaptata. Similarly, the rectitude of the act in comparison to something extrinsic has the note of the good and laudable even in things which pertain to oneself, but is especially praised in the things that pertain to others: that is, when a man makes his act right not only with respect to himself but also with respect to what he has in common with others. For the Philosopher says in Ethics 5 that many can use virtue in what concerns themselves but cannot in what concerns others; justice is the principal virtue in this regard, since by it a man is adapted and made equal in a fitting way to those with whom he lives. Hence, those things are commonly called just which are adapted in certain way. Moderatio autem, sive refrenatio, ibi praecipue laudem habet et rationem boni, ubi praecipue passio impellit, quam ratio refrenare debet, ut ad medium virtutis perveniatur. Impellit autem passio maxima ad prosequendas delectationes maximas, quae sunt delectationes tactus; et ideo ex hac parte ponitur cardinalis virtus temperantia, quae reprimit concupiscentias delectabilium secundum tactum. Moderation, or restraining, commands praise and has the note of the good chiefly when passion is intense and the restraint of reason is needed if the mean of virtue is to be achieved. Passions are most intense with respect to the greatest pleasures, that is, the pleasures of touch. Temperance is called a cardinal virtue because it restrains the desire for tactile pleasures. Firmitas autem praecipue laudem habet et rationem boni in illis in quibus passio maxime movet ad fugam: et hoc praecipue est in maximis periculis, quae sunt pericula mortis; et ideo ex hac parte fortitudo ponitur virtus cardinalis, per quam homo circa mortis pericula intrepide se habet. Firmness deserves praise and has the note of the good chiefly when passions induce us to flee, especially in the greatest perils which involve mortal danger. Fortitude is called a cardinal virtue because by it one is intrepid in the face of mortal danger. Harum autem quatuor virtutum prudentia quidem est in ratione, iustitia autem est in voluntate, fortitudo autem in irascibili, temperantia autem in concupiscibili; quae solae potentiae possunt esse principia actus humani, id est voluntarii. Of these four virtues, prudence is in reason, justice in will, fortitude in the irascible, and temperance in the concupiscible, which are the only powers that can be the principles of a human or a voluntary act. Unde patet ratio virtutum cardinalium, tum ex parte modorum virtutis, quae sunt quasi rationes formales, tum etiam ex parte materiae, tum etiam ex parte subiecti. Thus, the meaning of cardinal virtue is clear, both on the side of the modes of virtue, which are its formal notes, and on the side of matter, and on the side of the subject. Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod de praedictis quatuor virtutibus cardinalibus aliqui dupliciter loquuntur. Quidam enim utuntur praedictis quatuor nominibus ad significandum generales modos virtutum: puta omnem cognitionem dirigentem vocantes prudentiam; omnem rectitudinem adaequantem actus humanos vocantes iustitiam; omnem moderationem refrenantem appetitum hominis a temporalibus bonis vocantes temperantiam; omnem firmitatem animi stabilientem hominem in bono contra insultum quorumcumque malorum, fortitudinem appellantes. Et ita videtur uti his nominibus Augustinus in Lib. de moribus Eccles.; et secundum hoc potest intelligi praedictum verbum Gregorii: quia una harum conditionum ad veram virtutis rationem non sufficit nisi omnes praedictae conditiones concurrant. Secundum hoc ergo praedicta quatuor dicuntur quatuor virtutes non propter diversas species habituum quae attenduntur secundum diversa obiecta, sed secundum diversas rationes formales. Ad 1. It should be said that people speak in two ways of the four cardinal virtues mentioned, for some use these four names to signify general modes of the virtues, for example, calling any directive knowledge prudence, any rectitude that equalizes human acts justice, any moderation that restrains man’s appetite for temporal goods temperance, and all firmness of soul stabilizing man in the good against the assault of whatever evils, fortitude. It is in this way that Augustine seems to use these words in On the morals of the church, and in this way too that the remark of Gregory can be understood, because only one of the conditions of the true virtue does not suffice: All the conditions must be satisfied. On this basis the four are called virtues not because of different species of habits drawn from diverse objects, but according to different formal notions. Alii vero, sicut Aristoteles in Lib. Ethic., loquuntur de praedictis quatuor virtutibus secundum quod sunt speciales virtutes determinatae ad proprias materias; et secundum hoc etiam potest verificari dictum Gregorii: per modum enim cuiusdam redundantiae, praedictae virtutes sunt circa illas materias in quibus potissime commendantur praedictae generales quatuor virtutis conditiones. Unde secundum hoc fortitudo temperans est, et temperantia fortis, quia qui potest refrenare appetitum suum ne consequatur concupiscentias delectationum, quod pertinet ad temperantiam, multo magis poterit refrenare motum audaciae in periculis; et similiter qui potest stare firmus contra pericula mortis, multo magis potest stare firmus contra illecebras voluptatum. Et secundum hoc, id quod est principaliter temperantiae, transit ad fortitudinem, et e converso; et eadem ratio est in aliis. Others however, like Aristotle in the Ethics, speak of the four virtues mentioned as special virtues determined to proper matters, and Gregory’s remark is true in this sense as well, for by a certain redundancy, these virtues bear on matters in which the four cardinal virtues are most powerfully needed. In this way, fortitude is temperate and temperance brave since one who can restrain his appetite for pleasure, the task of temperance, will more easily restrain the impulse to recklessness before mortal danger; and similarly he who can stand firm against the dangers of death, can all the more easily stand firm against the allurements of desire. On this basis, what belongs principally to temperance passes on to fortitude and vice versa. And the same can be said of the others. Ad secundum dicendum, quod in fine appetitus hominis quiescit; et ideo virtutum theologicarum, quae sunt circa finem ultimum, principalitas non comparatur cardini, qui movetur, sed magis fundamento et radici, quae sunt stantia et quiescentia, secundum illud ad Ephes., III, 17: in caritate radicati et fundati. Ad 2. It should be said that man’s appetite rests in the end, and, therefore, the principality of the theological virtues, which bear on the ultimate end, is not compared to a hinge, which moves, but rather to a foundation or root, which is standing and at rest, according to Ephesians 3, 17: “rooted and grounded in love.” Ad tertium dicendum, quod secundum philosophum in VI Ethic., prudentia est recta ratio agibilium. Agibilia autem dicuntur moralia opera, ut ex his quae ibi dicuntur, apparet. Et ideo prudentia convenit cum moralibus virtutibus quantum ad sui materiam; et propter hoc connumeratur eis, licet quantum ad suam essentiam vel subiectum sit intellectualis. Ad 3. It should be said that, according to the Philosopher in Ethics 6, prudence is right reason with respect to things to be done. But things to be done are called moral works, as is clear from what is said there. Therefore, prudence agrees with the moral virtues because of its matter, and on account of this is numbered among them, although with respect to its essence or subject it is an intellectual virtue. Ad quartum dicendum, quod sapientia, ex hoc ipso quod non est circa humana, sed circa divina, non communicat cum virtutibus moralibus in materia: unde non connumeratur virtutibus moralibus, ut simul cum eis dicatur cardinalis virtus, quia ipsa ratio cardinis repugnat contemplationi, quia non est sicut ostium, quo intratur ad aliquid aliud; sed magis actio moralis est ostium, per quod ad contemplationem sapientiae intratur. Ad 4. It should be said that wisdom, because it is concerned with the divine and not the human, does not have its matter in common with the moral virtues, and hence is not numbered among them as if together with them it might be called a cardinal virtue. The notion of hinge is repugnant to contemplation, which is not like a door, whereby one enters into something else, but moral action is the door through which entry is made to the contemplation of wisdom. Ad quintum dicendum, quod si praedictae quatuor virtutes accipiantur secundum quod significant generales conditiones virtutum, secundum hoc omnes virtutes speciales, de quibus philosophus tractat in Lib. Ethic., reducuntur ad has quatuor virtutes sicut species ad genus. Si vero accipiantur secundum quod sunt speciales virtutes circa quasdam materias principales, sic aliae reducuntur ad eas sicut secundarium ad principale ut eutrapelia quae moderatur delectationem ludi, potest reduci ad temperantiam, quae moderatur delectationes tactus; unde et Tullius in II rhetoricae, ponit alias virtutes esse partes harum quatuor. Quod potest intelligi dupliciter: uno modo quod sint partes subiectivae secundum primum modum sumendi has virtutes; alio modo quod sint partes potentiales, si sumantur secundo modo virtutes praedictae; sic sensus est pars potentialis, quia non nominat totam virtutem animae, sed aliquid eius. Ad 5. It should be said that if the foregoing four virtues are taken to signify the general conditions of virtue, then all the special virtues of which the Philosopher treats in the Ethics are reduced to these four as species to genera. But if they be taken as special virtues dealing with the most basic matters, the others are reduced to them as the secondary to the principal; for example, eutrapelia, which moderates the pleasure of play, can be reduced to temperance which moderates the pleasures of touch. Hence, Cicero in Rhetoric 2 says that the other virtues are parts of these four. That can be understood in two ways: They are subjective parts if these virtues are taken in the first way, whereas they are potential parts if they are taken in the second way. Thus, sense is a potential part of the soul because it does not name the whole power of the soul, but something of it. Ad sextum dicendum, quod non est de ratione temperantiae quod omnes pravas concupiscentias excludat, sed quod temperatus non patiatur aliquas tales concupiscentias vehementes et fortes, sicut patiuntur illi qui non studuerunt concupiscentias refrenare. Paulus igitur patiebatur concupiscentias inordinatas propter fomitis corruptionem: non tamen fortes neque vehementes, quia studebat eas reprimere castigando corpus suum, et in servitutem redigendo; unde vere temperatus erat. Ad 6. It should be said that it is not of the meaning of temperance that it excludes all depraved desires, but that the temperate person does not experience as vehement and strong desires as those who do not try to restrain them. Therefore, Paul suffered inordinate desires because of the corruption of lust, but not strongly or vehemently, because he sought to repress them by castigating his own body and bring it into subjection. Hence, he was truly temperate. Ad septimum dicendum, quod iustitia, per quam ordinamur ad alterum, non est circa passiones proprias, sed circa operationes quibus communicamus cum aliis, sicut sunt emptio et venditio, et alia huiusmodi: temperantia autem et fortitudo sunt circa proprias passiones. Et ideo, sicut in homine est una vis appetitiva sine passione id est voluntas, duae autem cum passione, id est concupiscibilis et irascibilis: ita est una virtus cardinalis ordinans ad proximum, duae autem ordinantes hominem ad seipsum. Ad 7. It should be said that justice, by which we are related to the other, does not deal with one’s own passions but with the activities by which we communicate with others, such as buying and selling and the like: But temperance and fortitude are concerned with one’s own passions and therefore, Just as there is one appetitive power without passion, namely, will, and two with passion, namely, the concupiscible and irascible, so there is one cardinal virtue ordered to the neighbor, and two ordering a man to himself. Ad octavum dicendum, quod caritas dicitur esse omnis virtus non essentialiter, sed causaliter, quia scilicet caritas est mater omnium virtutum. Semper autem effectus magis multiplicatur quam causa; et ideo oportet aliarum virtutum esse maiorem multiplicitatem quam caritatis. Ad 8. It should be said that charity is called the whole of virtue not essentially but causally, because charity is the mother of all the virtues. But the effect is always more multiplied than the cause, and therefore the other virtues must be greater in number than charity. Ad nonum dicendum, quod diversa ratio receptionis potest esse vel ex parte materiae, quae receptiva est formae; et talis diversitas facit diversitatem generis; vel ex parte formae, quae diversimode receptibilis est in materia: et talis diversitas facit diversitatem speciei. Et ita est in proposito. Ad 9. It should be said that the different senses of reception can be taken either from the side of the matter which is receptive of form, and such diversity causes diversity of genus, or from the side of the form which is diversely receivable in matter, and such diversity causes diversity of species. And so it is in the objection. Ad decimum dicendum, quod virtutes morales attingunt rationem sicut regulam proximam, Deum autem sicut regulam primam. Res autem specificantur secundum propria et proxima principia, non secundum principia prima. Ad 10. It should be said that the moral virtues involve reason as their proximate measure, but God as their first measure. Things are specified according to proper and proximate principles, not according to first principles. Ad undecimum dicendum, quod principalis pars hominis est pars rationalis. Sed rationale est duplex: scilicet per essentiam et per participationem; et sicut ipsa ratio est principalior quam vires participantes ratione, ita etiam prudentia est principalior quam aliae virtutes. Ad 11. It should be said that the rational is the principal part of man, but something is rational in two ways, essentially or by way of participation and, just as reason itself is more principal that the powers participating in reason, so prudence is more principal than the other virtues. Ad duodecimum dicendum, quod virtutes cardinales dicuntur principaliores omnibus aliis, non quia sunt omnibus aliis perfectiores, sed quia in eis principalius versatur humana vita, et super eas aliae virtutes fundantur. Manifestum est autem quod humana vita magis versatur circa iustitiam, quam circa liberalitatem: utimur enim iustitia ad omnes, liberalitate autem ad paucos. Ipsa autem liberalitas supra iustitiam fundatur: non enim esset liberalis donatio, nisi aliquis daret de suo; per iustitiam autem distinguuntur propria ab alienis. Ad 12. It should be said that the cardinal virtues are called more principal, not because they are more perfect than all the other virtues, but because human life more principally turns on them and the other virtues are based on them. But it is manifest that human life turns more on justice than on liberality, for we use justice in regard to all, but liberality in regard to a few. And liberality itself is founded on justice, for there would not be a liberal gift if one did not give of his own, but one’s own is distinguished from that of others through justice. Ad decimumtertium dicendum, quod humilitas firmat omnes virtutes indirecte, removendo quae bonis virtutum operibus insidiantur, ut pereant; sed in virtutibus cardinalibus firmantur aliae virtutes directe. Ad 13. It should be said that humility strengthens all virtues indirectly by removing what can undermine the good works of the virtues and cause them to perish; but the other virtues are directly strengthened by the cardinal virtues. Ad decimumquartum dicendum, quod patientia includitur in fortitudine: nam fortis habet id quod est patientis, ut scilicet non conturbetur ex imminentibus malis; et etiam addit amplius, ut scilicet in mala imminentia exiliat secundum quod oportet. Ad 14. It should be said that patience is included in fortitude, for the brave person has what the patient person has, but adds even more, namely, that he drives off imminent evils in the way that he should. Ad decimumquintum dicendum, quod ex hoc ipso quod magnanimitas est ornatus aliarum virtutum, manifestatur quod alias virtutes praesupponit, in quibus fundatur; et ex hoc apparet quod aliae sunt magis principales quam ipsa. Ad 15. It should be said that, from the fact that magnanimity adorns the other virtues, it is clear that it presupposes the other virtues in which it is grounded, and from this it is also clear that the others are more principal than it.
Articulus 2
Secundo quaeritur utrum virtutes sint connexae; ut qui habet unam, habeat omnesArticle 2
Whether the virtues are connected such that he who has one has allEt videtur quod non. And it seems not. Dicit enim Beda super Lucam, quod sancti magis humiliantur de virtutibus quas non habent, quam extollantur de virtutibus quas habent. Ergo quasdam habent, et quasdam non habent; non ergo virtutes sunt connexae. 1. In commenting on Luke, Bede says that the saints are more humbled by the virtues they do not have than extolled for those they have. Therefore, they have some and lack others, and the virtues are not connected. Praeterea, homo post poenitentiam est in statu caritatis: de his autem patitur difficultatem operandi propter consuetudinem praecedentem, ut dicit Augustinus contra Iulianum; et sic huiusmodi difficultas videtur provenire ex habitu contrario virtuti, per malam consuetudinem acquisitam, cum quo non potest simul esse virtus ei contraria. Ergo aliquis potest habere unam virtutem, scilicet caritatem, et carebit aliis. 2. Moreover, a man is in the state of charity after penance, and yet he experiences difficulty in certain matters because of his earlier practice, as Augustine says against Julian. But a difficulty of this kind seems to arise from a habit contrary to virtue, due to an acquired bad inclination incompatible with the contrary virtue. Therefore, someone can have one virtue, namely, charity, and lack others. Praeterea in omnibus baptizatis caritas invenitur. Sed quidam baptizati non habent prudentiam, ut patet maxime in morionibus et phreneticis, qui non possunt esse prudentes, secundum philosophum; et etiam in quibusdam adultis simplicibus, qui non bene videntur esse prudentes, cum non sint bene consiliativi, quod est opus prudentiae. Non ergo qui habet unam virtutem, scilicet caritatem habet omnes alias. 3. Moreover, charity is found in all those who have been baptized, but some of the baptized do not have prudence, as is particularly evident in the retarded and insane, who cannot be prudent, according to the Philosopher, and even in some simple adults who do not seem to be prudent, since they do not deliberate well, which is a work of prudence. Therefore, he who has one virtue, namely charity, does not have all the others. Praeterea, secundum philosophum in VI Ethic., prudentia est recta ratio agibilium, sicut ars est recta ratio factibilium. Sed homo potest habere rectam rationem circa unum genus factibilium puta circa fabrilia, et non habebit rectam rationem circa alia artificialia. Ergo etiam potest habere prudentiam circa unum genus agibilium, puta circa iusta, et non habebit circa aliud genus, puta circa fortia; et ita poterit habere unam virtutem absque alia. 4. Moreover, according to the Philosopher in Ethics 6, prudence is right reason concerning things to be done, as art is right reason regarding things to be made. But a man can have right reason with regard to one sort of makeable things, for example, tools, and not with respect to other artificial things. Therefore, he can also have prudence concerning one sort of act, for example, just acts, and not have it concerning another, for example, brave acts. Thus, he will have one virtue without the others. Praeterea, philosophus dicit in IV Ethic., quod non omnis liberalis est magnificus, et tamen utrumque est virtus, scilicet liberalitas et magnificentia; et similiter dicit, quod aliqui sunt moderati, non tamen magnanimi. Non ergo quicumque habet unam virtutem, habet omnes. 5. Moreover, the Philosopher says in Ethics 6 that not every liberal person is magnificent, yet both liberality and magnificence are virtues; similarly he says that some are moderate and not magnanimous. Therefore, it is not the case that whoever has one virtue has them all. Praeterea, apostolus dicit I ad Corinth., cap. XII, 4: divisiones gratiarum sunt; et postea subdit: alii datur per spiritum sermo sapientiae, alii sermo scientiae, quae sunt intellectuales virtutes, alii fides, quae est virtus theologica. Ergo aliquis habet unam virtutem, et non habet aliam. 6. Moreover, the Apostle says in 1 Corinthians 12:4: “There are varieties of gifts;” and afterwards (8:9) adds: “To one through the Spirit is given the utterance of wisdom; and to another the utterance of knowledge” (which are intellectual virtues), “to another faith” (which is a theological virtue). Therefore, one can have one virtue and not another. Praeterea, virginitas est quaedam virtus, ut Cyprianus dicit. Sed multi habent alias virtutes qui non habent virginitatem. Ergo non quicumque habet unam virtutem, habet omnes. 7. Moreover, virginity is a virtue, as Cyprian says. But many have other virtues and do not have virginity. Therefore, not everyone who has one virtue has them all. Praeterea, philosophus dicit in VI Ethic., quod Anaxagoram et Thaletem sapientes quidem dicimus, non autem prudentes. Sed sapientia et prudentia sunt quaedam virtutes intellectuales. Ergo aliquis potest habere unam virtutem sine aliis. 8. Moreover, the Philosopher says in Ethics 6 that although we call Anaxagoras and Thales wise we do not call them prudent. But wisdom and prudence are intellectual virtues. Therefore, a person can have one virtue without the others. Praeterea, philosophus in eodem Lib. dicit, quod quidam habent inclinationem ad unam virtutem, et non ad aliam. Potest ergo contingere quod aliquis exercitetur in actibus unius virtutis, et non in actibus alterius. Sed ex exercitio actuum acquiruntur quaedam virtutes, ut patet per philosophum in II Ethic. Ergo, saltem, virtutes acquisitae non sunt connexae. 9. Moreover, in the same book the Philosopher says that some have an inclination to one virtue but not to another. It can happen, therefore, at someone practices the acts of one virtue an not those of another. But from the performance of acts virtues are acquired, as is clear from the Philosopher in Ethics 2. Therefore, the acquired virtues at least are not connected. Praeterea, virtus etsi secundum aptitudinem sit a natura, tamen secundum esse perfectum non est a natura, ut dicitur in II Ethic. Manifestum est etiam quod non est a fortuna, quia quae sunt a fortuna, sunt praeter electionem. Relinquitur ergo quod virtus acquiratur in nobis vel a proposito vel a Deo. Sed a proposito (ut videtur) potest acquiri una virtus sine alia: quia unus potest habere intentionem ad acquirendum unam virtutem, et non aliam. Similiter etiam et a Deo: quia aliquis potest petere a Deo unam virtutem, et non aliam. Ergo omnibus modis una virtus potest esse sine alia. 10. Moreover, although the aptitude for virtue comes from nature it cannot be perfected by nature, as is said in Ethics 2. It is manifest as well that it is not from fortune, because the goods of fortune are outside the realm of choice. It follows, therefore, that we acquire virtue either by putting our minds to it or from God. But it seems that one virtue can be acquired intentionally without another since one can have the intention of acquiring one virtue but not another. Similarly, someone can ask God for one virtue and not another. Therefore, in whatever way it be considered, one virtue can be without others. Praeterea, finis in moralibus comparatur ad actus virtutum in moralibus, sicut in demonstrativis principia ad conclusiones. Sed homo potest habere unam conclusionem sine alia. Ergo potest habere unam virtutem sine alia. 11. Moreover, in moral matters, the end is related to the acts of the virtues, as principles are to conclusions in demonstrative matters. But a man can have one conclusion without others. Therefore, he can have one virtue without others. Praeterea, Augustinus dicit in quadam Epist. de sententia Iacobi, quod non est divina sententia, qua dicitur: qui habet unam virtutem, habet omnes; et quod homo potest habere unam virtutem sine alia, puta misericordiam, et non continentiam; sicut et in membris corporis unum potest esse illuminatum, sive decorum aut sanum, sine alio. Ergo virtutes non sunt connexae. 12. Moreover, Augustine says in a letter about the judgment of Jacob that it is not a divine judgment that he who has one virtue has them all, and that a man can have one virtue without the others, for example, mercy and not continence, much as in the body one member can be well, handsome, or healthy, and another not. Therefore, the virtues are not connected. Praeterea, ea quae sunt connexa, aut hoc est ratione principii, aut ratione subiecti, aut ratione obiecti. Sed non ratione principii, quod est Deus, quia, secundum hoc, omnia bona quae sunt a Deo, essent connexa; nec etiam ratione subiecti, quod est anima, quia secundum hoc omnes non essent connexae; nec iterum ratione obiecti, quia per obiecta distinguuntur: non est autem idem principium distinctionis et connexionis. Ergo et cetera. 13. Moreover, things are connected either by reason or principle or subject or object. But the virtues cannot be connected by reason of their principle, God, because then it would follow that all the goods that are from God are connected. Nor by reason of their subject, the soul, because not all are connected on that basis. And not by reason of object, because they are distinguished from one another by their objects and the principle of distinction and connection cannot be the same. Therefore... Praeterea, intellectuales virtutes non habent connexionem cum moralibus; sicut patet maxime de intellectu principiorum, qui potest haberi sine moralibus virtutibus. Sed prudentia est virtus intellectualis, quae ponitur una cardinalium. Ergo non habet connexionem cum aliis cardinalibus, quae sunt virtutes morales. 14. Moreover, the intellectual virtues are not connected with the moral virtues, as is most evident in the understanding of principles, which can be had without the moral virtues. But prudence is an intellectual virtue, which is numbered among the cardinal virtues. Therefore, it does not have a connection with the other cardinal virtues, which are moral virtues. Praeterea, in patria non erit fides et spes, sed tantum erit ibi caritas. Ergo etiam in statu perfectissimo virtutes non erunt connexae. 15. Moreover, in heaven there will be neither faith nor hope, but only charity. Therefore, even in the most perfect state the virtues are not connected. Praeterea, Angeli, in quibus non sunt virtutes sensitivae, et similiter animae separatae, habent caritatem et iustitiam, quae est perpetua et immortalis; non autem habent temperantiam et fortitudinem, quia hae virtutes sunt irrationabilium partium, ut dicitur in III Ethic. Ergo virtutes non sunt connexae. 16. Moreover, angels and separated souls, which are perpetual and immortal, do not have sense powers, and they have charity and justice but not temperance and fortitude because these are virtues of the irrational parts, as is said in Ethics 3. Therefore, the virtues are not connected. Praeterea, sicut sunt virtutes quaedam animae, sunt etiam quaedam virtutes corporales. Sed in virtutibus corporalibus non est connexio, quia aliquis habet visum qui non habet auditum. Ergo neque etiam in virtutibus animae. 17. Moreover, some virtues are of the soul, but there are also virtues of body. But there is no connection among the bodily powers, since one can have sight and not hearing. Therefore, neither is there a connection among the virtues of the soul. Praeterea, dicit Gregorius super Ezechielem, quod nemo repente fit summus; et in Psalm. LXXXIII, 8, dicitur, quod ibunt de virtute in virtutem. Non ergo simul acquirit homo virtutes, sed successive; et ita virtutes non sunt connexae. 18. Moreover, Gregory says on Ezechiel that no one suddenly becomes the best, and in Psalm 83, 8, it is said: “They shall go from strength to strength.” Therefore, a man does not acquire the virtues simultaneously, but successively, and thus the virtues are not connected. Sed contra. Est quod Ambrosius dicit super Luc.: connexae sunt et concatenatae: ut qui unam habuerit, omnes habere videatur. ON THE CONTRARY. 1. Ambrose says in commenting on Luke that they are connected and interlocked such that he who has one is seen to have them all. Praeterea, Gregorius dicit XXII Moral., quod si una virtus sine alia habeatur, aut virtus non est, aut perfecta non est. Sed perfectio est de ratione virtutis: virtus enim est perfectio quaedam, ut dicitur in VII Physic. Ergo virtutes sunt connexae. 2. Moreover, Gregory says in morals on Job 23 that if one virtue could be had without the others, either it is not a virtue or it is not perfect. But perfection is of the very notion of virtue. “For virtue is a certain perfection,” as is said in Physics 7. Therefore, the virtues are connected. Praeterea, super illud Ezech., I, 11: duae pennae singulorum iungebantur, Glossa dicit, quod virtutes sunt coniunctae; ut qui una caruerit, alia careat. 3. Moreover, with respect to Ezekiel 1:11: “Two wings of every one were joined,” the Gloss says the virtues are conjoined such that he who lacks one, lacks the others. Respondeo. Dicendum, quod de virtutibus dupliciter possumus loqui: uno modo de virtutibus perfectis; alio modo de virtutibus imperfectis. Perfectae quidem virtutes connexae sibi sunt; imperfectae autem virtutes non sunt ex necessitate connexae. RESPONSE. It should be said that we can speak of virtues in two ways, as perfect and as imperfect. Perfect virtues are connected to one another, but imperfect virtues are not necessarily connected. Ad cuius evidentiam sciendum est, quod cum virtus sit quae hominem bonum facit, et opus eius bonum reddit, illa est virtus perfecta quae perfecte opus hominis bonum reddit, et ipsum bonum facit; illa autem est imperfecta, quae hominem et opus eius reddit bonum non simpliciter, sed quantum ad aliquid. In evidence of which it should be noted that since virtue is that which makes a man and his work good, the virtue that makes a man’s work and himself good is perfect virtue, whereas the imperfect does not make a man and his work good simply speaking, but only in a certain respect. Bonum autem simpliciter in actibus humanis invenitur per hoc quod pertingitur ad regulam humanorum actuum; quae quidem est una quasi homogenea et propria homini, scilicet ratio recta, alia autem est sicut prima mensura transcendens, quod est Deus. Ad rationem autem rectam attingit homo per prudentiam, quae est recta ratio agibilium, ut philosophus dicit in VI Ethic. Ad Deum autem attingit homo per caritatem, secundum illud I Ioan., IV, 16: qui manet in caritate, in Deo manet, et Deus in eo. Human acts are good simply speaking when they attain to the rule of human acts, one of which is, as it were, homogeneous and proper to man, namely, right reason, and the other a first transcendent measure, which is God. A man attains right reason through prudence, which is right reason concerning what is to be done, as the Philosopher says in Ethics 6. A man attains to God through charity, according to John 4, 16: “God is love, and he who abides in love abides in God, and God in him.” Sic igitur est triplex gradus virtutum. Sunt enim quaedam virtutes omnino imperfectae, quae sine prudentia existunt, non attingentes rationem rectam, sicut sunt inclinationes quas aliqui habent ad aliqua virtutum opera etiam ab ipsa nativitate, secundum illud Iob, XXXI, 18: ab infantia crevit mecum miseratio, et de utero egressa est mecum. Huiusmodi autem inclinationes non simul insunt omnibus, sed quidam habent inclinationem ad unum, quidam ad aliud. Hae autem inclinationes non habent rationem virtutis, quia virtute nullus male utitur, secundum Augustinum; huiusmodi autem inclinationibus potest aliquis male uti et nocive, si sine discretione utatur; sicut equus, si visu careret, tanto fortius impingeret, quanto fortius curreret. Unde Gregorius dicit in XXII Moral., quod ceterae virtutes, nisi ea quae appetunt, prudenter agant, virtutes esse nequaquam possunt; unde ibi inclinationes quae sunt sine prudentia, non habent perfecte rationem virtutis. There is then a threefold grade of virtue. For there are some wholly imperfect virtues which exist without prudence, not attaining right reason, such as the inclinations which some have to certain works of virtue even from their birth, according to Job 31:18: “For from my infancy mercy grew up with me: and it came out with me from my mother’s womb.” Such inclinations are not all at once in everybody, but some have an inclination to one and others to another. Such inclinations do not have the mark of virtue, however, because no one uses a virtue badly, according to Augustine, but a person can use such inclinations badly and harmfully if he acts without discretion, much as a horse if it lacks vision will run faster the harder it is beaten. Hence, Gregory in Morals on Job 22 says that other virtues, unless those who desire act prudently, cannot be called virtues at all. Hence, these inclinations without prudence do not fulfill the definition of virtue. Secundus autem gradus virtutum est illarum quae attingunt rationem rectam, non tamen attingunt ad ipsum Deum per caritatem. Hae quidem aliqualiter sunt perfectae per comparationem ad bonum humanum, non tamen sunt simpliciter perfectae, quia non attingunt ad primam regulam, quae est ultimus finis, ut Augustinus dicit contra Iulianum. Unde et deficiunt a vera ratione virtutis; sicut et morales inclinationes absque prudentia deficiunt a vera ratione virtutis. The second grade of virtues are those that attain right reason but do not attain God through charity. These are in a sense perfect with respect to the human good, but not simply speaking perfect, because they do not attain the first rule, which is the ultimate end, as Augustine says against Julianus. Hence, they fall short of the true definition of virtue much as moral inclinations without prudence fall short of the true definition of virtue. Tertius gradus est virtutum simpliciter perfectarum, quae sunt simul cum caritate; hae enim virtutes faciunt actum hominis simpliciter bonum, quasi attingentem usque ad ultimum finem. Est autem considerandum ulterius, quod, sicut virtutes morales esse non possunt absque prudentia, ratione iam dicta, ita nec prudentia potest esse sine virtutibus moralibus; est enim prudentia recta ratio agibilium. Ad ipsam autem rectam rationem in quolibet genere requiritur quod aliquis habeat aestimationem et iudicium de principiis, ex quibus ratio illa procedit; sicut in geometricalibus non potest aliquis habere aestimationem rectam, nisi habeat rectam rationem circa principia geometricalia. Principia autem agibilium sunt fines; ex his enim sumitur ratio agendorum. De fine autem habet aliquis rectam existimationem per habitum virtutis moralis; quia, ut philosophus dicit in III Ethic., qualis unusquisque est, talis et finis videtur ei; sicut virtuoso videtur appetibile, ut finis, bonum quod est secundum virtutem; et vitioso illud quod pertinet ad illud vitium; et est simile de gustu infecto et sano. Unde necesse est quod quicumque habet prudentiam, habeat etiam virtutes morales. The third grade is of virtues that are perfect simply speaking, because they are with charity. These virtues make a man’s act simply good, as attaining the ultimate end. It should be considered further that just as moral virtues cannot exist without prudence, for the reason already given, so prudence cannot exist without the moral virtues, for prudence is right reason about things to be done. For right reason in any genus one must have estimation and judgment of principles, from which reason proceeds, as in geometry one cannot have a correct estimate unless his reason is right concerning geometrical principles. But ends are the principles in things to be done and from them is drawn the reason for acting. But a person has a right estimate of the end thanks to the habit of moral virtue because, as the Philosopher says in Ethics 3, as a person is, so does the end appear to him. For to the virtuous that which is the good according to virtue seems desirable as an end, but to the vicious the desirable is that which pertains to his vice. And it is the same with healthy and unhealthy taste. Hence it is necessary that whoever has prudence also has moral virtues. Similiter etiam quicumque habet caritatem, oportet quod habeat omnes alias virtutes. Caritas enim est in homine ex infusione divina, secundum illud Rom. V, 5: caritas Dei diffusa est in cordibus nostris per spiritum sanctum, qui datus est nobis. Deus autem ad quaecumque dat inclinationem, dat etiam formas aliquas, quae sunt principia operationum et motuum, ad quos res inclinatur a Deo; sicut igni dat levitatem, per quam prompte et faciliter sursum tendit; unde, ut dicitur Sap. VIII, 1, disponit omnia suaviter. Similarly, whoever has charity, must have all the other virtues. But charity is in man by a divine infusion, according to Romans 5:5: “The charity of God is poured forth in our hearts by the Holy Spirit who has been given to us.” But to whomever God gives an inclination he also gives certain forms which are the principles of action and motion to the things God inclines him to, just as he gives lightness to fire so that it can quickly and easily leap upward. Hence, it is said in Wisdom 8:1: “and orders all things sweetly.” Oportet igitur quod similiter cum caritate infundantur habituales formae expedite producentes actus ad quos caritas inclinat. Inclinat autem caritas ad omnes actus virtutum, quia cum sit circa finem ultimum, importat omnes actus virtutum. Quaelibet enim ars vel virtus ad quam pertinet finis, imperat his quae sunt circa finem, sicut militaris equestri, et equestris frenorum factrici, ut dicitur in I Ethicor. Unde secundum decentiam divinae sapientiae et bonitatis, ad caritatem simul habitus omnium virtutum infunduntur; et ideo dicitur I ad Corinth. XII, v. 4: caritas patiens est, benigna est, et cetera. So it is necessary that, along with charity, there should be infused habitual forms for expeditiously producing the acts to which charity inclines. But charity inclines to the acts of all the virtues: Since it is concerned with the ultimate end, it implies the acts of all virtues. But any art or virtue which pertains to the end commands those which are for the sake of the end, as the general commands the cavalryman and the cavalryman the maker of harness, as is said in Ethics 1. Hence, according to the fittingness of divine wisdom and goodness, along with charity, the habits of all virtues are infused along with charity, and therefore it is said in 1 Corinthians 13, 5: “Charity is patient, is kind,” etc. Sic ergo, si accipiamus virtutes simpliciter perfectas, connectuntur propter caritatem; quia nulla virtus talis sine caritate haberi potest, et caritate habita omnes habentur. Si autem accipiamus virtutes perfectas in secundo gradu, respectu boni humani, sic connectuntur per prudentiam; quia sine prudentia nulla virtus moralis esse potest, nec prudentia haberi potest, si cui deficiat moralis virtus. Si tamen accipiamus quatuor cardinales virtutes, secundum quod important quasdam generales conditiones virtutum, secundum hoc habent connexionem, ex hoc quod non sufficit ad aliquem actum virtutis quod adsit una harum conditionum, nisi omnes adsint; et secundum hoc videtur assignare causas connexionis Gregorius, in Lib. XXI Moralium. Therefore, if we mean simply perfect virtues, they are connected because of charity, because no such virtue can be had without charity and, if charity is had, all of them are had. If we understand virtues perfect in the second grade, with respect to the human good, they are connected through prudence, because no moral virtue can be had without prudence nor can prudence be had if one is lacking moral virtue. But if we understand the four cardinal virtues insofar as they imply the general conditions of virtue, in this way they are connected in the sense that it does not suffice to the act of virtue that one of these conditions be present if all are not, and this is the reason Gregory gave for their connection in Morals on Job 21. Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod propter inclinationem quae est ex natura, vel ex aliquo dono gratiae, quam habet aliquis magis ad opus unius virtutis quam alterius contingit quod aliquis promptior est ad actum unius virtutis quam alterius; et secundum hoc dicuntur sancti aliquas virtutes habere, ad quarum actus magis sunt prompti, et aliquas non habere, ad quas sunt minus prompti. Ad 1. It should be said that because of an inclination one has to the work of one virtue rather than another, which is either natural or a gift of grace, it happens that one more promptly performs the act of one virtue than another; and in this way the saints are said to have some virtues on which they are prompt to act and not to have others on which they are less prompt to act. Ad secundum dicendum, quod cum habitus secundum se facit prompte et delectabiliter operari, potest tamen hoc impediri per aliquid superveniens; sicut habens habitum scientiae interdum impeditur ad eius usum per somnolentiam vel ebrietatem, vel aliquid huiusmodi. Sic ergo iste qui poenitet, consequitur cum gratia gratum faciente, caritatem, et omnes alios habitus virtutum, sed propter dispositiones ex actibus priorum peccatorum relictas patitur difficultatem in executione virtutum quas habitualiter recipit; quod quidem non contingit in virtutibus acquisitis per exercitium actuum, per quos simul et contrariae dispositiones tolluntur, et habitus virtutum generantur. Ad 2. It should be said that although habits as such make someone act promptly and with pleasure, this can be impeded by something supervening, as one having the habit of science is sometimes impeded from using it by sleepiness or drunkenness or something of the like. Therefore, one who repents receives by grace charity and all the other virtues but because of the lingering dispositions from his prior sins he experiences difficulty in the performance of virtues which he has received habitually. This does not happen with virtues acquired through the practice of acts, which at the same time remove contrary dispositions and generate the habits of the virtues. Ad tertium dicendum, quod ille qui baptizatur, simul cum caritate recipit et prudentiam, et omnes alias virtutes; sed de necessitate prudentiae non est ut homo sit bene consiliativus in omnibus, puta in mercationibus et rebus bellicis et huiusmodi, sed in his quae sunt necessaria ad salutem: quod non deest omnibus in gratia existentibus, quantumcumque sint simplices, secundum illud I Ioan. II, 27: unctio docebit vos de omnibus; nisi forte in aliquibus baptizatis impediatur actus prudentiae propter corporalem defectum aetatis, sicut in pueris, vel pravae dispositionis, sicut in morionibus et phreneticis. Ad 3. It should be said that those who are baptized receive prudence along with charity and all the other virtues too, but it is not of the necessity of prudence that a man deliberate well in everything, for example, in trade and military matters and the like, but only in the things necessary for salvation, which are not lacking to those in grace, however simple they be, according to 1 John 2:27: “But his anointing teaches you concerning all things”; unless perhaps in some of the baptized the act of prudence be impeded on account of the bodily defect of age, as in children or those of deformed dispositions, such as the retarded and mad. Ad quartum dicendum, quod artificialia diversorum generum habent principia omnino disparata: et ideo nihil prohibet habere artem circa unum genus eorum, et non circa aliud. Sed principia moralium sunt ordinata ad invicem, ita quod per defectum unius sequeretur etiam defectus in aliis; puta, si quis deficeret ab hoc principio quod est concupiscentias non esse sequendas, quod pertinet ad concupiscentiam, sequeretur interdum quod sequendo concupiscentiam faceret iniuriam, et sic violaretur iustitia; sicut etiam in una et eadem arte vel scientia, puta in geometria, error unius principii inducit errorem in totam scientiam. Et inde est quod non potest esse aliquis sufficienter prudens circa materiam unius virtutis, nisi sit prudens circa omnes. Ad 4. It should be said that artifacts of different types have wholly different principles, so nothing prevents someone having one kind of art and not another. But the principles of morals are so interrelated to one another that the failure of one would entail the failure in others. For example, if one were weak on the principle that concupiscence is not to be followed, which pertains to desire, then sometimes in pursuing concupiscence, he would do injury and thus violate justice. So too in one and the same art or science, for example, geometry, an error about one principle leads to error in the whole science. Thence it is that one cannot be sufficiently prudent with regard to the matter of one virtue unless he is prudent with regard to them all. Ad quintum dicendum, quod potest dici quod contingit esse aliquem liberalem, sed non magnificum quantum ad actus: quia aliquis parum habens, potest in usu eius quod habet, exercere actum liberalitatis, non autem magnificentiae; quamvis aliquis habeat habitum, per quem etiam magnificentiae actum exerceret, si materia adesset. Et similiter dicendum est de moderantia et magnanimitate. Ista responsio tenenda est omnino in virtutibus infusis. In virtutibus etiam acquisitis per actum, potest dici, quod ille qui acquisivit habitum liberalitatis in usu parvae substantiae, nondum acquisito habitu magnificentiae, sed habito liberalitatis actu, est in proxima dispositione ut acquirat habitum magnificentiae per modicum actum. Quia igitur in propinquo est ut habeatur, idem videtur ac si haberetur, quia quod parum deest, quasi nihil deesse videtur, ut dicitur in II Physic. Ad 5. It should be said that it happens that someone can be called liberal but not high-minded with respect to an act, because someone having little can use what he has to perform an act of liberality but not of magnificence, although he might have the virtue by which he could also perform the act of magnificence if he had the wherewithal. Similarly, it must be said of moderation and magnanimity. This solution is to be held without reservation in the case of infused virtues, but in virtues acquired through acts it can be said that he who acquired the habit of liberality in the use of little, not yet having acquired the habit of magnificence but actually having the habit of liberality, is in proximate potency to acquiring the habit of magnificence with but slight effort. Therefore, because what is close to being had seems the same as being had, what is lacking only a little seems not to be lacking at all, as is said Physics 2. Ad sextum dicendum, quod sapientia et scientia non accipiuntur in illis verbis apostoli neque secundum quod sunt virtutes intellectuales, quae tamen connexionem non habent, ut infra dicetur, neque secundum quod sunt dona spiritus sancti, quae connexionem habent secundum caritatem; sed secundum quod sunt gratiae gratis datae: prout scilicet aliquis abundat scientia et sapientia, ut possit aedificare alios ad finem et Dei cognitionem, et contradicentes arguere; unde et apostolus non dicit: alii datur sapientia, alii scientia; sed: alii datur sermo sapientiae, alii sermo scientiae. Unde Augustinus dicit in XIV de Trinitate, quod huiusmodi scientia, non pollent fideles plurimi, quamvis ipsa fide polleant. Fides etiam non accipitur ibi pro fide informi, ut quidam dicunt, quia donum fidei commune est omnibus; sed accipitur pro quadam fidei constantia, seu certitudine, quae interdum abundat etiam in peccatoribus. Ad 6. It should be said that in those words of the Apostle wisdom and knowledge are understood neither as intellectual virtues, which, however, have no connection, as will be said below, nor as gifts of the Holy Spirit, which are connected through charity, but insofar as they are of grace freely given: namely, insofar as someone abounds in knowledge and wisdom so that he can spur others to the end and to the knowledge of God, convincing those who object. Hence, the Apostle does not say that to one is given wisdom and to another knowledge, but to one is given the utterance of wisdom, to other the utterance of knowledge. Hence, Augustine, in On the Trinity 14, says that many believers are not strong in such knowledge although they might be strong in faith itself. Faith does not mean here unformed faith, as some say, because the gift of faith is common to all, but means the constancy of faith or its certitude, which sometimes abounds even in sinners. Ad septimum dicendum, quod virginitas secundum quosdam non nominat virtutem, sed quemdam perfectiorem statum virtutis. Non autem oportet quod quicumque habet virtutem, habeat eam secundum gradum perfectum. Et ideo sine virginitate, castitas et aliae virtutes haberi possunt. Vel, si detur quod virginitas sit virtus, hoc erit secundum quod importat habitum mentis, ex quo aliquis eligit virginitatem conservare propter Christum. Et hic quidem habitus esse potest etiam in his qui carnis integritate carent; sicut et habitus magnificentiae potest esse sine magnitudine divitiarum. Ad 7. It should be said that some hold that virginity is not the name of a virtue so much as of a more perfect state of virtue. But it is not necessary that anyone who has a virtue have it in its perfect grade. Therefore, chastity and the other virtues can be had without virginity. Or, if virginity is taken to be a virtue, this will be insofar as it implies a habit of mind by which one chooses to preserve virginity for the sake of Christ. And this habit can exist even in those who are not intact in the flesh, just as the habit of magnificence can be without a lot of wealth. Ad octavum dicendum, quod virtutes intellectuales non sunt connexae ad invicem; et hoc propter tria. Primo quidem, quia quae sunt circa rerum diversa genera, non sunt coordinata ad invicem, sicut et de artibus dictum est. Secundo, quia in scientiis non convertibiliter se habent principia et conclusiones; ita scilicet quod quicumque habet principia, habeat conclusiones, sicut in moralibus dictum est. Tertio, quia virtus intellectualis non habet respectum ad caritatem, per quam ordinatur homo ad ultimum finem. Et ideo huiusmodi virtutes ordinantur ad aliqua particularia bona: puta geometria ad dimetiendum circa abstracta quaedam, physica circa mobilia, et sic de aliis. Unde eadem ratione non sunt connexae qua nec virtutes imperfectae, ut supra, in corp. art., dictum est. Ad 8. It should be said that the intellectual virtues are not interconnected and this for three reasons. First, because virtues concerned with different kinds of things are not related to one another, as has been said of the arts. Second, because in the sciences principles and conclusions are not convertible, such that whoever has the principles has the conclusions, as has been said about moral matters. Third, because intellectual virtue is not related to charity by which man is ordered to his ultimate end. Therefore, such virtues are concerned with particular goods, for example, geometry with measuring abstract entities, Physics with mobile things, and so on with the others. Hence, they are not connected for the same reason that imperfect virtues are not, as was said about in the body of the article. Ad nonum dicendum, quod quaedam virtutes sunt quae ordinant hominem in his quae occurrunt in vita humana: sicut temperantia, iustitia, mansuetudo et huiusmodi; et in talibus necesse est quod homo, dum exercitatur in actu huius virtutis, vel simul etiam exerceatur in actibus aliarum virtutum, et tunc acquiret omnes habitus, virtutum simul; vel oportet quod bene se habeat in uno et male in aliis, et tunc acquiret habitum contrarium alteri virtuti, et per consequens corruptionem prudentiae, sine qua nec dispositio, quam acquisivit per actus alicuius virtutis, habet proprie rationem virtutis, ut supra, in corp. art., dictum est. Huiusmodi autem habitibus acquisitis circa ea quae communiter in vita occurrunt, virtualiter iam habentur quasi in propinqua dispositione si qui alii habitus virtutum sunt, quorum actus occurrant frequenter in conversatione humana; sicut de magnificentia et magnanimitate dictum est, in solutione ad 5 argumentum. Ad 9. It should be said that there are some virtues which order man with respect to the things that occur in human fife, such as temperance, justice, patience, and the like, and with them a man Must either, while actually performing the act of a virtue, simultaneously perform the acts of the other virtues and thus acquires all habits of the virtues together, or he must be good in the one and bad in the others. But in the latter case, he acquires a habit contrary to a virtue and consequently the corruption of prudence without which, as has been said above in the body of the article, the disposition acquired through the act of any virtue cannot properly be called a virtue. Such acquired habits bearing on things that commonly occur in fife are already virtually had as it were in proximate disposition if one has other virtues whose acts frequently occur in human intercourse, as was said of magnificence and magnanimity in the solution of argument 5. Ad decimum dicendum, quod virtutes acquisitae causantur a proposito; et necesse est quod simul causentur in homine qui sibi proponit acquirere unam virtutem; et non acquiret, nisi simul acquirat prudentiam, cum qua omnes habentur, ut dictum est in corp. art. Virtutes autem infusae causantur immediate a Deo, quae etiam causantur ex caritate, sicut ex communi radice, ut dictum est in corp. art. Ad 10. It should be said that acquired virtues are caused purposely, and must be all caused together in a man who proposes to himself to acquire one of them, nor are they acquired unless at the same time one acquires prudence with which all are had, as was said in the body of the article. But infused virtues are caused immediately by God, and they are also caused by charity as by their common root, as was said in the body of the article. Ad undecimum dicendum, quod in scientiis speculativis non se habent principia convertibiliter ad conclusiones, sicut accidit in moralibus, ut dictum est in corp. art., et ideo qui habet unam conclusionem, non necesse est quod habeat aliam. Esset autem necesse, si oporteret, quod quicumque habet principia, haberet conclusiones, sicut est in proposito. Ad 11. It should be said that in speculative sciences principles and conclusions are not convertible as they are in morals, as was said in the body of the article. Therefore, he who has one conclusion does not necessarily have another. If this were the case, it would be necessary that whoever has the principles has the conclusions, as the objection assumes. Ad duodecimum dicendum, quod Augustinus loquitur ibi de virtutibus imperfectis, quae sunt dispositiones quaedam ad actus virtutum; unde et ipsemet probat in VI de Trinitate, connexionem. Ad 12. It should be said that Augustine is speaking there of imperfect virtues which are dispositions to the acts of virtues; hence, he himself proves their connection in On the Trinity 6. Ad decimumtertium dicendum, quod virtutes habent connexionem ratione principii proximi, id est sui generis, quod est prudentia vel caritas; non autem ratione principii remoti et communis, quod est Deus. Ad 13. It should be said that virtues are connected by reason of the proximate principle of their genus, which is either prudence or charity, not by reason of the remote and common, which is God. Ad decimumquartum dicendum, quod prudentia specialiter inter virtutes intellectuales habet connexionem cum virtutibus ratione materiae circa quam est; est enim circa mobilia. Ad 14. It should be said that among the intellectual virtues prudence has a special connection with the [moral] virtues by reason of its matter, for it is concerned with changeable things. Ad decimumquintum dicendum, quod in patria, deficiente spe et fide, succedent quaedam perfectiora, scilicet visio et comprehensio, quae connectentur caritati. Ad 15. It should be said that in heaven where hope and faith disappear certain more perfect things succeed them, namely, vision and comprehension, which are conncctcd with charity. Ad decimumsextum dicendum, quod in Angelis et animabus separatis non est temperantia et fortitudo ad hos actus ad quos sunt in hac vita, scilicet ad moderandum passiones sensibilis partis; sed ad quosdam alios actus, ut patet per Augustinum in XIV de Trinitate. Ad 16. It should be said that In the angels and separated souls there is not temperance or fortitude with respect to such acts as are performed in this life, namely, moderating the passions of the sensible part, but to other acts, as is evident in Augustine On the Trinity 14. Ad decimumseptimum dicendum, quod potentiae animae non se habent convertibiliter cum essentia; quamvis enim nulla potentia animae possit esse sine essentia, tamen essentia animae potest esse sine quibusdam potentiis; puta sine visu et auditu, propter corruptionem organorum quorum huiusmodi potentiae proprie sunt actus. Ad 17. It should be said that the powers of the soul are not convertible with its essence, for although no power of the soul can exist apart from essence, yet the essence of the soul can exist without some powers, for example, without sight and hearing because of the corruption of the organs of which such powers are properly the acts. Ad decimumoctavum dicendum, quod non propter hoc homo est summus, quod habet omnes virtutes, sed propter hoc quod habet eas in summo. Ad 18. It should be said that a man is not the best because he has all the virtues but because he has them to the greatest degree.