DE SUBSTANTIIS SEPARATIS
TREATISE ON SEPARATE SUBSTANCESby
Thomas Aquinastranslated by
Francis J. Lescoe
West Hartford CN: Saint Joseph College, 1959
edited and html-formated by Joseph Kenny, O.P.
CONTENTS
- The opinion of the early philosophers and of Plato
- Aristotle’s opinion
- How Aristotle and Plato agree
- How the above positions of Plato and Aristotle differ
- The opinion of Avicebron and his arguments for it
- Refutation of Avicebron’s position
- That of spiritual and corporeal substances there cannot be one matter
- On the refutation of Avicebron’s arguments
- Concerning the error of those who posit the angels as not created and its refutation
- The opinion of Avicenna on the coming of things from the first principle and its refutation
- Concerning Plato’s opinion on the Ideas and its refutation
- On the error of those who hold that all spiritual substances are created equal and its refutation
- On the error of those who say that God and the angels do not have a knowledge of singulars
- In which it is shown that God’s providence extends to all things
- Resolution of the aforementioned positions
- The error of the Manicheans concerning the aforementioned points and its refutation
- What must be held according to the Catholic faith with respect to the origin of the angels
- On the condition of the nature of spiritual substances according to faith.
- On the distinction of spiritual substances according to sacred teaching.
Caput 4
De differentia dictarum positionum Aristotilis et PlatonisCHAPTER IV
HOW THE ABOVE POSITIONS OF PLATO AND ARISTOTLE DIFFERSunt autem alia in quibus differunt. Primo quidem, ut supra dictum est, Plato supra caelorum animas duplicem ordinem immaterialium substantiarum posuit, scilicet intellectus et deos: quos deos dicebat esse species intelligibiles separatas, quarum participatione intellectus intelligunt. Aristoteles vero universalia separata non ponens, unum solum ordinem rerum posuit supra caelorum animas, in quorum etiam ordine primum esse posuit summum Deum sicut et Plato summum Deum primum esse posuit in ordine specierum, quasi summus Deus sit ipsa idea unius et boni. Hunc autem ordinem Aristoteles posuit utrumque habere: ut scilicet esset intelligens et intellectum; ita scilicet, quod summus Deus intelligeret non participatione alicuius superioris, quod esset eius perfectio, sed per essentiam suam; et idem aestimavit esse dicendum in ceteris substantiis separatis sub summo Deo ordinatis, nisi quod, inquantum a simplicitate primi deficiunt et summa perfectione ipsius, eorum intelligere perfici potest per superiorum substantiarum participationem. Sic igitur secundum Aristotelem huiusmodi substantiae quae sunt fines caelestium motuum, sunt et intellectus intelligentes et intelligibiles species: non autem ita quod sint species vel naturae sensibilium substantiarum, sicut Platonici posuerunt, sed omnino altiores. 18. There are other respects in which Plato and Aristotle differ: First, as has been said above, Plato posited above the souls of the heavens, a two-fold order of immaterial substances, namely, the intellects and the gods. He declared these gods were the separate intelligible Forms by participation in which the intellects have understanding. But Aristotle, since he did not posit any separate universals, posited only a single order of things above the souls of the heavens. He held, moreover, that the first among these was the highest God, just as Plato held that the highest God was first in the order of Forms, among which the highest God is the very Idea of the One and the Good. But Aristotle held that this order comprised both, namely, so that it was both understanding and understood, so that thus the highest God would understand not by participation in something higher that would be His perfection but through His own essence. And Aristotle likewise held the same opinion as to the other separate substances ordered below the highest God, except that as they fall short of the simplicity of the First and of His highest perfection, their understanding can be perfected by participation in the higher substances. Thus, according to Aristotle, such substances which are the ends of the heavenly motions are both understanding intellects and intelligible Forms. But this is not to be understood in the sense that they are the forms or natures of sensible substances, as the Platonists asserted, but altogether higher forms. Secundo vero, quia Plato non coarctavit numerum intellectuum separatorum numero caelestium motuum: non enim ex hac causa movebatur ad ponendum intellectus separatos, sed ipsam naturam rerum secundum se considerans. Aristoteles vero a sensibilibus recedere nolens, ex sola consideratione motuum, ut supra dictum est, pervenit ad ponendum intellectuales substantias separatas: et ideo earum numerum coarctavit caelestibus motibus. They differ, secondly, because Plato did not restrict the number of separate intellects to the number of heavenly movements. It was not on this account that Plato was moved to posit separate intellects but rather by considering the very nature of things in themselves. Aristotle, on the other hand, not wishing to be diverted from sensible things, came to posit separate intellectual substances as a result of the sole consideration of motion, as we have said above, and for this reason, limited the number of the substance’s to the number of heavenly motions. Tertio autem, quia Aristoteles non posuit aliquas animas medias inter caelorum animas et animas hominum, sicut posuit Plato: unde de Daemonibus nullam invenitur nec ipse nec eius sequaces fecisse mentionem. Haec igitur sunt quae de opinionibus Platonis et Aristotelis circa substantias separatas ex diversis Scripturis collegimus. Third, they differ because Aristotle did not posit any souls intermediate between the souls of the heavens and the souls of men, as did Plato. Hence, we find that neither Aristotle nor any of his followers has made mention of demons.This then is what we have gathered from various writings concerning the opinions of Plato and Aristotle on the separate substances.
Caput 7
Quod spiritualis et corporalis substantiae non potest esse una materiaCHAPTER VII
THAT OF SPIRITUAL AND CORPOREAL SUBSTANCES THERE CANNOT BE ONE MATTEREx hac autem ratione ulterius concludi potest, quod spiritualis et corporalis substantiae non potest esse una materia. Nam si est materia una et communis utrorumque, oportet in ipsa distinctionem praeintelligi ante differentiam formarum, scilicet spiritualitatis et corporeitatis: quae quidem non potest esse secundum quantitatis divisionem quia in substantiis spiritualibus quantitatis dimensiones non inveniuntur. Unde relinquitur quod ista distinctio sit vel secundum formas seu dispositiones, vel secundum ipsam materiam: et cum non possit esse secundum formas et dispositiones in infinitum, oportet tandem redire ad hoc quod sit distinctio in materia secundum se ipsam. Erit igitur omnino alia materia spiritualium et corporalium substantiarum. 32. We may further conclude from this argument that there cannot be one matter for both spiritual and corporeal substances. For if both have a single and common matter, there must be understood in it a distinction prior to the difference of forms, namely, a distinction of spirituality and corporeity. This disposition cannot be according to a division of quantity because the dimensions of quantity are not found in spiritual substances. Accordingly, it remains that this distinction is either according to forms or dispositions or according to matter itself; and since it cannot be according to forms and dispositions to infinity, we must finally come back to this, that the distinction is present in matter according to matter itself. Therefore the matter of spiritual substances will be absolutely other than the matter of corporeal substances. Item cum recipere sit proprium materiae inquantum huiusmodi, si sit eadem materia spiritualium et corporalium substantiarum, oportet quod in utrisque sit idem receptionis modus. Materia autem corporalium rerum suscipit formam particulariter, idest non secundum communem rationem formae. Nec hoc habet materia corporalis inquantum dimensionibus subiicitur aut formae corporali, quia etiam ipsam formam corporalem individualiter materia corporalis recipit. Unde manifestum fit quod hoc convenit tali materiae, ex ipsa natura materiae, quae quia est infima, debilissimo modo recipit formam: fit enim receptio secundum modum recipientis. Et per hoc maxime deficit a completa receptione formae, quae est secundum totalitatem ipsius particulariter ipsam recipiens. Manifestum est autem quod omnis substantia intellectualis recipit formam intellectam secundum suam totalitatem; alioquin eam in sua totalitate intelligere non valeret. Sic enim intellectus intelligit rem secundum quod forma eius in ipso existit. Relinquitur igitur quod materia, si qua sit in spiritualibus substantiis, non est eadem cum materia corporalium rerum, sed multo altior et sublimior, utpote recipiens formam secundum eius totalitatem. 33. Again, since it is the property of matter as such to receive, if the matter of spiritual and corporeal substances is the same, then it is necessary that the mode of reception be the same in both. The matter of corporeal things, however, receives the form in a particular way, that is, not according to the common nature of form. Nor does corporeal matter act in this way insofar as it is subject to dimensions or to a corporeal form, since corporeal matter receives the corporeal form itself in an individual way. Accordingly, it becomes clear that this befits such a matter from the very nature of the matter which, since it is the lowest reality, receives form in the weakest manner; for reception takes place according to the mode of the receiver. Thereby matter, by receiving that form in a particular way, falls short in the greatest degree of that complete reception of form which is according to the totality of the form. Now it is clear that every intellectual substance receives the intellected form according to its totality, or otherwise it would not be able to know it in its totality. For it is thus that the intellect understands a thing insofar as the form of that thing exists in it. It remains therefore that if there be a matter in spiritual substances, it is not the same as the matter of corporeal things, but much nobler and finer, since it receives form according to its totality. Adhuc ultra procedentibus manifestum fit quod tanto aliquid in entibus est altius, quanto magis habet de ratione essendi. Manifestum est autem quod cum ens per potentiam et actum dividatur, quod actus est potentia perfectior, et magis habet de ratione essendi: non enim simpliciter esse dicimus quod est in potentia, sed solum quod est actu. Oportet igitur id quod est superius in entibus, magis accedere ad actum; quod autem est in entibus infimum, propinquius esse potentiae. Quia igitur materia spiritualium substantiarum non potest esse eadem cum corporalium materia, sed longe altior, ut ostensum est; necesse est ut longe distet a corporalium materia, secundum differentiam potentiae et actus. 34. Again, as we consider the matter further, it becomes clear that a given being has a higher place among beings according as it has a greater share in “to be”. It is clear, however, that since being is divided by potency and act, act is more perfect than potency and has a greater share in “to be”. For we do not say without qualification that what is in potency, is; we say this only of what is in act. It is therefore necessary that that which is higher among beings approach more closely to act, and that what is lowest among beings, be nearer to potency. And since the matter of spiritual substances cannot be the same as the matter of corporeal substances but is much higher as has been shown, it must be separated from the matter of corporeal substances according to the difference of potency and act. Corporalium autem materia est potentia pura, secundum sententiam Aristotelis et Platonis. Relinquitur igitur quod materia substantiarum spiritualium non sit potentia pura, sed sit aliquid ens actu, in potentia existens. Non autem sic dico ens actu, quasi ex potentia et actu compositum; quia vel esset procedere in infinitum, vel oporteret venire ad aliquid quod esset ens in potentia tantum: quod cum sit ultimum in entibus, et per consequens non potens recipere nisi debiliter et particulariter, non potest esse prima materia spiritualis et intellectualis substantiae. Relinquitur ergo quod spiritualis substantiae materia ita sit ens actu, quod sit actus vel forma subsistens; sicut et materia corporalium rerum ita dicitur ens in potentia, quia est ipsa potentia formis subiecta. Now according to the opinion of Aristotle and Plato, the matter of corporeal things is pure potency. It remains therefore that the matter of spiritual substances is not pure potency but is something actual existing in potency. I am not saying “some thing actual existing in potency” as though I meant some thing composed of act and potency, because either we should have to proceed to infinity or we should have to arrive at something which was a being only in potency; and since this being is the lowest among beings and consequently can receive existence in a way which is weak and particularized, it cannot be the prime matter of a spiritual and intellectual substance. It remains therefore that the matter of a spiritual substance is in such wise a being in act that it be a subsisting act or form, just as the matter of corporeal things is said to be a being in potency for the reason that it is the very potency which is subject to forms. Ubicumque autem ponitur materia ens actu, nihil differt dicere materiam et substantiam rei. Sic enim antiqui naturales, qui ponebant primam materiam corporalium rerum esse aliquid ens actu, dicebant materiam esse omnium rerum substantiam, per modum quo artificialium substantia nihil est aliud quam eorum materia. Sic igitur si materia spiritualium substantiarum non potest esse aliquid ens in potentia tantum, sed est aliquid ens actu, ipsa spiritualium rerum materia est eorum substantia. Et secundum hoc nihil differt ponere materiam in substantiis spiritualibus, et ponere substantias spirituales simplices, non compositas ex materia et forma. 35. Furthermore, whenever matter is posited as an actual being, it makes no difference whether we call it the matter or the substance of a thing, For thus the ancient Natural Philosophers, who held that the first matter of corporeal things was some actual being, said that matter was the substance of all things in the same way that the substance of artificial things is nothing other than their matter. Therefore, if the matter of spiritual substances cannot be only some potential being but is some actual being, then the matter itself of spiritual beings is their substance. And in this case, there is no difference whether we posit matter in spiritual substances or whether we hold that simple spiritual substances are not composed of matter and form. Amplius, cum actus naturaliter sit prior potentia et forma quam materia, potentia quidem dependet in suo esse ab actu, et materia a forma; forma autem in suo esse non dependet a materia secundum propriam rationem vel actus (a potentia); non enim priora naturaliter a posterioribus dependent. Si igitur aliquae formae sint quae sine materia esse non possunt, hoc non convenit eis ex hoc quod sunt formae, sed ex hoc quod sunt tales formae, scilicet imperfectae, quae per se sustentari non possunt, sed indigent materiae fundamento. Furthermore, act is by nature prior to potency and form prior to matter and since potency depends in its existence on act and matter depends on form, whereas form according to its proper nature does not depend on matter for its existence, neither does act, (for that which is by nature prior does not depend upon that which is by nature subsequent); — since this is the case, if there are some forms which cannot exist without matter, this befits them not because they are forms, but because they are such forms ‘ namely, imperfect forms which cannot exist through themselves of their own accord but need the foundation of matter. Sed ante omne imperfectum invenitur aliquid perfectum in omnibus generibus; puta, si est ignis in materia aliena, a qua ignis secundum suam rationem non dependet, necesse est esse ignem non sustentatum in materia aliena. Sunt igitur supra formas in materiis receptas, aliquae formae per se subsistentes, quae sunt spirituales substantiae ex materia et forma non compositae. Hoc etiam apparet in infimis substantiarum spiritualium, scilicet animabus, si quis eas ponat corporibus uniri ut formas. Impossibile est enim id quod est ex materia et forma compositum esse alicuius corporis formam. Nam esse formam alicuius est esse actum eiusdem. Nulla igitur pars eius quod est alicuius forma, potest esse materia, quae est potentia pura. 36. Now in all classes of being, prior to every thing imperfect, there is found something Perfect. For example, if there is fire in a foreign matter upon which the fire according to its nature does not depend, then it follows that the fire is not supported in the foreign matter. Therefore above the forms received in matter, there are certain self-subsisting forms which are spiritual substances not composed of matter and form. This fact also appears among the lowest of the spiritual substances, namely souls, on the assumption that they are united to bodies as forms. For it is impossible that that which is composed of matter and form be the form of some body. For to be the form of some being is to be the act of that being. Hence no part of that which is the form of some being can be matter, which is pure potency.
Caput 9
De opinione eorum qui dicunt substantias spirituales non esse creatasCHAPTER IX
CONCERNING THE ERROR OF THOSE WHO POSIT THE ANGELS AS NOT CREATED AND ITS REFUTATIONSicut autem praedicta positio circa conditionem spiritualium substantiarum a sententia Platonis et Aristotelis deviavit, eis immaterialitatis simplicitatem auferens; ita et circa modum existendi ipsarum aliqui a veritate deviasse inveniuntur, auferentes earum originem a primo et summo auctore. In quo inveniuntur diversi homines tripliciter errasse. 46. Just as the aforementioned position on the condition of spiritual substances strayed from the opinion of Plato and Aristotle by taking away from those substances the simplicity of immateriality, so, concerning their mode of being, we find that certain people have strayed from the truth by taking away from spiritual substances an origin in a first and highest Author. On this point there was a three-fold error among different thinkers. Quidam enim posuerunt praedictas substantias omnino causam sui esse non habere. Quidam autem posuerunt eas quidem essendi causam habere, non tamen immediate eas omnes procedere a summo et primo principio, sed quadam serie ordinis inferiores earum a superioribus essendi originem habere. Alii vero confitentur omnes quidem huiusmodi substantias immediate essendi habere originem a primo principio, sed in ceteris quae de eis dicuntur, puta quod sunt viventes, intelligentes et alia huiusmodi, superiores inferioribus causas existere. For, in the first place, some of them said that the aforementioned substances had absolutely no cause of their “to be”. Others held that these substances had indeed a cause of being but they did not proceed immediately from the highest and first Principle but the lower ones among them derived their being from the higher ones according to a certain orderly succession. Still others admit that all these substances have the origin of their being immediately from the First Principle; but in the case of their other attributes, for example, in that they are living, intelligent, and the like, the higher substances are as causes for the lower ones. Primi quidem igitur spirituales substantias omnino increatas esse existimant, huiusmodi opinionem sumentes ex his quae secundum materiam causantur, utentes communi suppositione naturali philosophorum pro principio: ex nihilo nihil fieri. Hoc autem videtur fieri quod habet causam sui esse. Quidquid igitur sui esse causam habet, oportet illud ex alio fieri. Hoc autem ex quo aliquid fit, est materia. Si igitur spirituales substantiae materiam non habent, consequens videtur eas omnino causam sui esse non habere. 47. In the first place, then, they hold that spiritual substances are completely uncreated. They derive this opinion from the things which are caused according to matter, and they base themselves on the common physical assumption of the philosophers as their principle, namely, that from nothing nothing comes. That thing seems to become which has a cause of its “to be”. Whatever, therefore, has a cause for its “to be”, this must come from another. Now that from which another becomes, is matter. If, therefore, spiritual substances have no matter, it seems to follow that they have absolutely no cause of their “to bell. Rursus. Fieri, moveri quoddam est, vel mutari. Mutationis autem omnis et motus subiectum aliquod esse oportet; est enim motus actus existentis in potentia. Oportet igitur omni ei quod fit subiectum, aliquod praeexistere. Spirituales igitur substantiae, si immateriales sunt, factae esse non possunt. Again, “to become” is a certain kind of “to be moved” or “to be changed”. Now there must be some subject for all change and motion, since motion is the act of something existing in potency. Therefore some subject must pre-exist for everything that becomes. Hence, if spiritual substances are immaterial, they cannot have been made. Item. In qualibet factione cum pervenitur ad factum esse ultimum, non remanet aliquid fieri: sicut nec post ultimum motum esse, remanet moveri. Videmus autem in his quae generantur, quod unumquodque eorum tunc factum esse dicitur quasi terminata factione, quando accipit formam: est enim forma generationis terminus. Adepta igitur forma, nihil restat fiendum. Habens igitur formam non fit ens sed est ens secundum suam formam. Si igitur aliquid sit secundum se forma, hoc non fit ens. Spirituales autem substantiae sunt quaedam formae subsistentes, ut ex praemissis manifestum est. Non igitur spirituales substantiae sui esse causam habent, quasi ab alio factae. Again, in any given making, when we arrive at the final “having been made”, there remains nothing to be made, just as after the last “having been moved”, there remains no “to be moved”. But in the case of those things that are generated, we see that each one of them is then said to have been made, as meaning that the making is finished, when it receives its form. For the form is the term of generation. Therefore when the form is acquired, nothing remains to be made. Therefore that which has a form does not become a being; it is a being according to its form. If then something is in itself a form, this does not become a being. Now spiritual substances are certain subsistent forms as is clear from what has already been said. Therefore spiritual substances do not have a cause of their “to be” in the sense of having been made by another. Posset etiam aliquis ad hoc argumentari ex opinionibus Aristotelis et Platonis, qui huiusmodi substantias ponunt esse sempiternas. Nullum autem sempiternum videtur esse factum, quia ens fit ex non ente, sicut album ex non albo; unde videtur consequens ut quod fit, prius non fuerit. Sic igitur consequens est, si spirituales substantiae sunt sempiternae, quod non sint factae, nec habeant sui esse principium et causam. One could likewise argue to the same effect from the opinion of Aristotle and Plato who hold that such substances are everlasting. But nothing everlasting seems to be something made, since a being comes to be from non-being, as white comes to be from non-white. It seems to follow, then, that what comes to be, previously did not exist. Consequently, if spiritual substances are everlasting, it follows that they are neither made nor do they have a principle and cause of their “to be”. Sed si quis diligenter consideret, ab eadem radice inveniet hanc opinionem procedere, et praedictam, quae materiam spiritualibus substantiis adhibet. Processit enim supradicta opinio ex hoc quod spirituales substantias eiusdem rationis esse existimavit cum materialibus substantiis, quae sensu percipiuntur: imaginationem transcendere non valens. Sic et ista opinio ex hoc videtur procedere quod elevari non potest intellectus ad intuendum alium modum causandi quam iste qui convenit materialibus rebus. Paulatim enim humana ingenia processisse videntur ad investigandam rerum originem. Primo namque in sola exteriori mutatione, rerum originem consistere homines aestimaverunt. Dico autem exteriorem originem, quae fit secundum accidentales transmutationes. 48. But if one were to consider the matter correctly, he will find that this opinion and the previous opinion which attributes matter to spiritual substances, proceed from the same source. For the previous opinion proceeded from the fact that Avicebron, unable to transcend the imagination, considered that spiritual substances were of the same nature as the material substances which are perceived by sense. So, too, the present opinion seems to proceed from the fact that the intellect cannot be raised to see a mode of causing other than the one which is suited to material things. For human ability seems to have progressed slowly in investigating the origin of things. In the beginning, men thought that the origin of things consisted only in an external change, by which I mean an external origin that takes place according to accidental changes. Primi enim philosophantes de naturis, rerum fieri statuerunt nihil esse aliud quam alterari; ita quod id quod est rerum substantia, quam materiam nominabant, sit principium primum penitus non causatum. Non enim distinctionem substantiae et accidentis intellectu transcendere poterant. Alii vero aliquantulum ulterius procedentes, etiam ipsarum substantiarum originem investigaverunt, ponentes aliquas substantias causam sui esse habere. Sed quia nihil praeter corpora mente percipere poterant, resolvebant quidem corporales substantias in aliqua principia, sed corporalia, ponentes ex quibusdam corporibus congregatis alia fieri, ac si rerum origo in sola congregatione et segregatione consisteret. For those who were first to philosophize about the natures of things held that to become is nothing other than to be altered, so that the substance of things which they called matter, is a completely uncaused first principle. For they were not able by their intellect to hurdle the distinction between substance and accident. Others, proceeding a little further, likewise investigated the origin of the substances themselves, asserting that certain substances had a cause of their “to be”. But because they were not able by their minds to see anything beyond bodies, they did indeed reduce corporeal substances to certain principles but corporeal principles, and they posited that other substances come to be through the combining of certain bodies, as though the origin of things consisted solely in combining and separating. Posteriores vero philosophi ulterius processerunt, resolventes sensibiles substantias in partes essentiae, quae sunt materia et forma: et sic fieri rerum naturalium in quadam transmutatione posuerunt, secundum quod materia alternatim diversis formis subiicitur. Later philosophers proceeded by reducing sensible substances into their essential parts, which are matter and form. Thus they made the “becoming” of physical things to consist in a certain change, according as matter is successively made subject to different forms. Sed ultra hunc modum fiendi necesse est, secundum sententiam Platonis et Aristotelis, ponere alium altiorem. Cum enim necesse sit primum principium simplicissimum esse, necesse est quod non hoc modo esse ponatur quasi esse participans, sed quasi ipsum esse existens. Quia vero esse subsistens non potest esse nisi unum, sicut supra habitum est, necesse est omnia alia quae sub ipso sunt, sic esse quasi esse participantia. Oportet igitur communem quamdam resolutionem in omnibus huiusmodi fieri, secundum quod unumquodque eorum intellectu resolvitur in id quod est, et in suum esse. Oportet igitur supra modum fiendi quo aliquid fit, forma materiae adveniente, praeintelligere aliam rerum originem, secundum quod esse attribuitur toti universitati rerum a primo ente, quod est suum esse. But beyond this mode of becoming, it is necessary according to the teaching of Plato and Aristotle, to posit a higher one. For, since it is necessary that the First Principle be most simple, this must of necessity be said to be not as participating in “to be” but as itself being “to be”. But because subsistent “to be” can be only one, as was pointed out above, then necessarily all other things under it must be as participating in “to be”. Therefore there must take place a certain common resolution in all such things according as each of them is reduced by the intellect into that which is and its “to be”. Therefore, above the mode of coming to be, by which something becomes when form comes to matter, we must presuppose another origin for things according as “to be” is bestowed upon the whole universe of things by the First Being that is its own “to be”. Rursus. In omni causarum ordine necesse est universalem causam particulari praeexistere. Nam causae particulares non agunt nisi in universalium causarum virtute. Manifestum est autem quod omnis causa per motum aliquid faciens, particularis causa est, habet enim particularem effectum; est enim omnis motus ex hoc determinato in illud determinatum, omnisque mutatio motus cuiusdam terminus est. Oportet igitur supra modum fiendi quo aliquid fit per mutationem vel motum, esse aliquem modum fiendi sive originis rerum absque omni mutatione vel motu per influentiam essendi. 49. Again, in every order of causes, a universal cause must exist prior to the particular cause, since particular causes act only in the power of universal causes. Now it is clear that every cause that makes something through motion is a particular cause, since it has a particular effect. For every motion is from this determinate point to that determinate point, and every change is the terminus of some motion. Therefore, over and above the mode of becoming by which something comes to be through change or motion, there must be a mode of becoming or origin of things, without any mutation or motion through the influx of being. Item. Necesse est quod per accidens est, in id reduci quod per se est. In omni autem quod fit per mutationem vel motum, fit quidem hoc vel illud ens per se, ens autem communiter sumptum per accidens fit; non enim fit ex non ente sed ex non ente hoc; ut si canis ex equo fiat, ut Aristotelis exemplo utamur, fit quidem canis per se, non autem fit animal per se, sed per accidens, quia animal erat prius. Oportet igitur originem quamdam in rebus considerari, secundum quam ipsum esse communiter sumptum per se attribuitur rebus, quod omnem mutationem et motum transcendat. Further, that which exists by accident must be reduced to that which exists through itself. Now in every thing that comes to be through change or motion, there comes to be that which is in itself this or that being. But “being” taken in its community, comes to be accidentally, for it does not arise from non-being but from non-being this, as if dog arises from horse. To use the example of Aristotle, if a dog were to come to be from a horse, that which is essentially a dog comes to be, but an animal does not come to be essentially but only accidentally, since animal existed previously. It is therefore necessary to consider in things a certain origin according to which “to be” taken in its community, is granted essentially to things—which transcends all change and motion. Adhuc. Si quis ordinem rerum consideret, semper inveniet id quod est maximum causam esse eorum quae sunt post ipsum; sicut ignis, qui est calidissimus, causa est caliditatis in ceteris elementatis corporibus. Primum autem principium, quod Deum dicimus, est maxime ens. Non enim est in infinitum procedere in rerum ordine, sed ad aliquid summum devenire, quod melius est esse unum quam plura. Quod autem in universo melius est, necesse est esse, quia universum dependet ex essentia bonitatis; necesse est igitur primum ens esse causam essendi omnibus. And if one should consider the order of things, he will always find that that which is most such is always the cause of those things that come after it. For example, fire which is hottest, is the cause of heat in other elementary bodies. Now the First Principle which we call God is most a being. For in the order of things, we cannot proceed to infinity but we must come to something highest because it is better to be one than to be many. But that which is better in the universe, must necessarily be because the universe depends on the essence of God’s goodness. Therefore the First Being must of necessity be the cause of being for all things. His autem visis, facile est solvere rationes inductas. Quod enim antiqui naturales quasi principium supposuerunt, ex nihilo nihil fieri, ex hoc processit quia solum fiendi modum pervenire potuerunt, qui est per mutationem vel motum. 50. Having seen these points, we can easily solve the arguments brought forth. That the ancient Naturalists assumed as a first principle that nothing comes to be from nothing was due to the fact that they were able to reach only a particular mode of coming to be, namely, that which is through change and motion. De quo etiam fiendi modo secunda ratio procedebat. In his enim quae fiunt per mutationem vel motum, subiectum factioni praesupponitur; sed in supremo modo fiendi, qui est per essendi influxum, nullum subiectum factioni praesupponitur, quia hoc ipsum est subiectum fieri secundum hunc factionis modum, quod est subiectum esse participare per influentiam superioris entis. The second argument likewise was based on this mode of coming to be. For among things which come to be through change or motion, a subject is presupposed to the making, but in the highest mode of coming to be, which takes place through the influx of being, no subject is presupposed to the making; for according to this kind of making, for a subject to come to be is for the subject to participate in “to be” through the influence of a higher being. Similiter etiam tertia ratio de hoc modo fiendi procedit qui est per mutationem et motum. Cum enim ad formam perventum fuerit, nihil de motu restabit. Oportet tamen intelligere quod per formam res generata esse participet ab universali essendi principio. Non enim causae agentes ad determinatas formas sunt causae essendi nisi inquantum agunt in virtute primi et universalis principii essendi. So, too, the third argument is likewise based on the coming to be, which is through change or motion. For when the form is reached, there will be no further motion. Nevertheless, we must understand that through its form, a generated thing receives its “to be” from the universal cause of being. For the causes that are acting towards the production of determinate forms are causes of being only insofar as they act in the power of the first and universal principle of being. Quarta etiam ratio eodem modo procedit de his quae fiunt per motum vel mutationem, in quibus necesse est ut non esse praecedat esse eorum quae fiunt, quia eorum esse est terminus mutationis vel motus. In his autem quae fiunt absque mutatione vel motu per simplicem emanationem sive influxum, potest intelligi aliquid esse factum praeter hoc quod quandoque non fuerit. Sublata enim mutatione vel motu non invenitur in actione influentis principii, prioris et posterioris successio. Unde necesse est ut sic se habeat effectus per influxum causatus ad causam influentem quamdiu agit, sicut in rebus quae per motum fiunt, se habet ad causam agentem in termino actionis cum motu existentis. Tunc autem effectus iam est. Necesse est igitur ut in his quae absque motu fiunt, simul cum agentis influxu sit ipse effectus productus. Si autem actio influentis sine motu extiterit, non accedit agenti dispositio ut postmodum possit agere, cum prius non potuerit, quia iam haec mutatio quaedam esset. Potuit igitur semper agere influendo; unde et effectus productus intelligi potest semper fuisse. Et hoc quidem aliqualiter apparet in corporalibus rebus. Ad praesentiam enim corporis illuminantis producitur lumen in aere absque aliqua aeris transmutatione praecedente: unde si semper corpus illuminans aeri praesens fuisset, semper ab ipso aer lumen haberet. 51. The fourth argument likewise applies in the same way to those things which come to be through change or motion, in which it is necessary that non-existence precede the existence of things that come to be, for their “to be” is the terminus of a change or motion. But in those things which come to be without change or motion through a simple emanation or influx, we are able to understand that something has been made without including that at some time, it did not exist. For when change or motion has been removed, there is not found in the action of the causal principle, the succession of “before” and “after”. It is therefore necessary that the effect which is produced through the influence of a cause be so related to that influencing cause while it is acting, in the same way that things which come to be through motion are related to their acting cause at the terminus of the action that exists through motion; for at that time, the effect then exists. Therefore, in the case of those things that come to be without motion, it is necessary that the produced effect be simultaneous with the influx of the acting cause. If, however, the action of the acting cause be without motion, no disposition will come to the agent so that he might be able to act afterwards when previously he could not do so, because this disposition would already be a certain change. Hence he could always act by an influx. Therefore the effect produced can be understood to have always existed. And this appears somewhat among corporeal things themselves. For in the presence of an illuminating body, light is produced in the air without any preceding change of the air. Accordingly, if the illuminating body had always been present to the air, the air would always have light from it. Sed expressius hoc videtur in intellectualibus rebus, quae sunt magis remotae a motu. Est enim principiorum veritas causa veritatis in conclusionibus semper veris. Sunt enim quaedam necessaria quae suae necessitatis causam habent, ut etiam Aristoteles dicit in quinto metaphysicae, et in octavo physicorum. Non ergo aestimandum est quod Plato et Aristoteles, propter hoc quod posuerunt substantias immateriales seu etiam caelestia corpora semper fuisse, eis subtraxerunt causam essendi. Non enim in hoc a sententia Catholicae fidei deviarunt, quod huiusmodi posuerunt increata, sed quia posuerunt ea semper fuisse, cuius contrarium fides Catholica tenet. 52. But this appears more clearly in the case of intellectual beings which are more removed from motion. For the truth of the principles is the cause of the truth in conclusions that are always true. For there are certain necessary things which have a cause of their necessity, as Aristotle himself says in the fifth book of the Metaphysics: and in the eighth book of the Physics. Therefore, although Plato and Aristotle did posit that immaterial substances or even heavenly bodies always existed, we must not suppose on that account that they denied to them a cause of their being. For they did not depart from the position of the Catholic faith by holding such substances to be uncreated, but because they held them to have always existed — of which the Catholic faith holds the contrary. Non enim est necessarium, quamvis origo sit ab immobili principio absque motu, quod eorum esse sit sempiternum. A quolibet enim agente procedit effectus secundum modum sui esse. Esse autem primi principii est eius intelligere et velle. Procedit igitur universitas rerum a primo principio sicut ab intelligente et volente. Intelligentis autem et volentis est producere aliquid non quidem ex necessitate, sicut ipsum est, sed sicut vult et intelligit. In intellectu autem primi intelligentis comprehenditur omnis modus essendi, et omnis mensura quantitatis et durationis. Sicut igitur non eumdem modum essendi rebus indidit quo ipsum existit, corporumque quantitatem sub determinata mensura conclusit, cum in eius potestate, sicut et in intellectu, omnes mensurae contineantur; ita etiam dedit rebus talem durationis mensuram qualem voluit, non qualem habet. Sicut igitur corporum quantitas sub tali determinata mensura concluditur, non quia actio primi principii ad hanc mensuram quantitatis determinetur, sed quia talis mensura quantitatis sequitur in effectu, qualem intellectus causae praescripsit: ita etiam ex actione primi agentis consequitur determinata durationis mensura ex intellectu divino eam praescribente: non quasi ipse subiaceat successivae durationi, ut nunc velit aut agat aliquid quod prius noluerit, sed quia tota rerum duratio sub eius intellectu et virtute concluditur, ut determinet rebus ab aeterno mensuram durationis quam velit. For although the origin of certain things be from an unmoved principle without motion, it is not necessary that their “to be” be everlasting. For an effect proceeds from any given agent according to the mode of the “to be” of the agent. Now the “to be” of the First Principle is His “to understand” and “to will”. Therefore the universe of things proceeds from the First Principle as from a being that understands and wills. But it belongs to one understanding and willing to produce something not of necessity as it itself is, but as it wills and understands. Now in the intellect of the first understanding being, there is included every mode of being and every measure of quantity and duration. Therefore, just as the First Principle did not give to things the same mode of being by which He exists and enclosed the quantity of bodies under a determinate measure — since all measures are contained in His power as well as in His intellect — so He gave to things such a measure of duration as He willed, not as He has. Accordingly, just as the quantity of bodies is enclosed under a given measure, not because the action of the First Principle is determined to this measure of quantity but because a measure of quantity actually follows as the intellect of the cause has prescribed; so, too, from the action of the First Cause, there follows a determinate measure of duration because the divine Intellect so prescribed; not, indeed, in the sense that God is subject to successive duration, so that He now wills or does something which He previously did not will, but because the whole duration of things is included under His Intellect, so that He determines from eternity the measure of duration that He Wills for things.
Caput 11
Contra Platonicos qui ponunt quasdam perfectiones essentiales substantiarum spiritualium non esse immediate a DeoCHAPTER XI
CONCERNING PLATO’S OPINION ON THE IDEAS AND ITS REFUTATIONHis autem rationibus moti Platonici posuerunt quidem omnium immaterialium substantiarum et universaliter omnium existentium Deum esse immediate causam essendi secundum praedictum productionis modum, qui est absque mutatione vel motu; posuerunt tamen secundum alias participationes bonitatis divinae ordinem quemdam causalitatis in praedictis substantiis. Ut enim supra dictum est, posuerunt abstracta principia secundum ordinem intelligibilium conceptionum: ut scilicet sicut unum et ens sunt communissima, et primo cadunt in intellectu, sub hoc autem est vita, sub qua iterum est intellectus, et sic inde; ita etiam primum et supremum inter separata est id quod est ipsum ens et ipsum unum, et hoc est primum principium, quod est Deus, de quo iam dictum est, quod est suum esse. Sub hoc autem posuerunt aliud principium separatum, quod est vita; et iterum aliud, quod est intellectus. Si igitur sit aliqua immaterialis substantia quae sit intelligens, vivens et ens, erit quidem ens per participationem primi principii, quod est ipsum esse; erit autem vivens per participationem alterius principii separati, quod est vita; erit autem intelligens per participationem alterius separati principii, quod est ipse intellectus: sicut si ponatur quod homo sit animal per participationem huius principii separati quod est animal, sit autem bipes per participationem secundi principii, quod est bipes. 60. Influenced by these reasons, the Platonists held that in the case of all immaterial substances and, in general, all existing things, God is immediately the cause of being according to the aforementioned mode of production which is without change or motion. But they posited a certain order of causality in the aforementioned substances according to other participations in the divine goodness. For, as we said above the Platonists posited abstract principles according to the order of our intelligible conceptions. This would mean that just as unity and being are most common and are the first to fall in the intellect, after which comes life, then intellect and so forth, so likewise, the first and highest among these separate principles is that which is being itself, and this is the First Principle, God, of Whom we have said that He is His own being. Under this principle, they posited another separate principle, life, and again, another, intellect. If, therefore, there be some immaterial substance which is intelligent, living, and being, it will be a being through participation in the First Principle which is being itself; it will be living through participation in the second separate principle which is life; and it will be intelligent through a participation in another separate principle which is the intellect itself. This would be the same as if it were posited that man is an animal through participation in the separate principle which is animal; and a biped through participation in a second principle which is biped. Haec autem positio quantum ad aliquid quidem veritatem habere potest; simpliciter autem vera esse non potest. Eorum enim quae accidentaliter alicui adveniunt, nihil prohibet id quidem quod est prius, ab aliqua universaliori causa procedere; quod vero est posterius ab aliquo posteriori principio; sicut animalia et plantae calidum quidem et frigidum ab elementis participant, sed determinatum complexionis modum ad speciem propriam pertinentem obtinent ex virtute seminali per quam generantur. Nec est inconveniens quod ab alio principio aliquid sit quantum et album seu calidum. Sed in his quae substantialiter praedicantur, hoc contingere penitus impossibile est. Nam omnia quae substantialiter de aliquo praedicantur sunt per se et simpliciter unum. Unus autem effectus non reducitur in plura prima principia secundum eamdem rationem principii, quia effectus non potest esse causa simplicior. Unde et Aristoteles hac ratione utitur contra Platonicos: quod si esset aliud animal, et aliud bipes in principiis separatis, non esset simpliciter unum animal bipes. Si igitur in immaterialibus substantiis aliud esset id quod est esse et aliud quod est vivere, et aliud quod est intellectivum esse, ita quod vivens adveniret enti, vel intelligens viventi, sicut accidens subiecto, vel forma materiae, haberet rationem quod dicitur. Videmus enim aliquid esse causam accidentis quod non est causa subiecti, et aliquid esse causam substantialis formae quod non est causa materiae. Sed in immaterialibus substantiis id ipsum esse eorum est ipsum vivere eorum. Nec est in eis aliud vivere quam intellectivum esse: unde a nullo alio habent quod vivant et intellectiva sint, quam a quo habent quod sint. Si igitur omnes immateriales substantiae a Deo habent immediate quod sint, ab eo immediate habent quod vivant et intellectivae sint. Si quid autem advenit eis supra eorum essentiam, puta intelligibiles species, vel aliquid huiusmodi, quantum ad talia potest Platonicorum opinio procedere: ut scilicet huiusmodi in inferioribus immaterialium substantiarum inveniantur ordine quodam a superioribus derivata. 61. Now this position can be true in a certain way but, absolutely speaking, it cannot be true. For among those qualities which come accidentally to some being, nothing prevents that which is prior from coming from a more universal cause and that, which is subsequent, from coming from some subsequent principle. For example, animals and plants paxticipate in heat and cold from the elements but they obtain the determinate mode of complexion which pertains to their own species from the seminal power through which they are generated. Nor is it awkward that a thing have quantity or be white or hot from different principles. But this is absolutely impossible in the case of substantial attributes. For all attributes which are predicated of some thing substantially, are essentially and absolutely one. Now a single effect is not reduced to several first principles according to the same notion of principle because an effect cannot be simpler than its cause. Whence, Aristotle himself uses this argument against the Platonists, namely, that if animal were one thing and biped another thing in separate principles, then there would not be “one two-footed animal” without qualification. If, therefore, among immaterial substances, that which is the “to be” were different from the “to live” and from the “to be intelligent” in such a way that “living” would come to an existing being or “being intelligent” would come to a living being as an accident to a subject or form to matter, then what is said would be correct. For we see that something is the cause of the accident which is not the cause of the subject, and something is the cause of the substantial form that is not the cause of matter. But in immaterial substances, their “to be” itself is their “to live”, and their “to live” is not other than their “to be intelligent”. Therefore they are living and understanding from the same principle that they are beings. Therefore if all immaterial substances have their being immediately from God, then they have immediately from Him their life and intelligence. And if anything comes to them over and above their essence, for example, intelligible species or the like, in this respect, the position of the Platonists can hold, namely, that such qualities among lower immaterial substances may have been derived according to a certain order from higher ones.
Caput 15
Quod cura divinae providentiae ad omnia se extenditCHAPTER XIV
IN WHICH IT IS SHOWN THAT GOD’S PROVIDENCE EXTENDS TO ALL THINGSSicut autem divinam cognitionem necesse est secundum praemissa usque ad minima rerum extendere, ita necesse est divinae providentiae curam universa concludere. Invenitur enim in rebus omnibus bonum esse in ordine quodam, secundum quod res sibi invicem subserviunt et ordinantur ad finem. Necesse est autem, sicut omne esse derivatur a primo ente, quod est ipsum esse, ita omne bonum derivari a primo quod est ipsa bonitas. Oportet igitur singulorum ordinem a prima et pura veritate derivari: a qua quidem aliquid derivatur secundum quod in eo est, per intelligibilem scilicet modum. In hoc autem ratio providentiae consistit quod ab aliquo intelligente statuatur ordo in rebus quae eius providentiae subsunt. Necesse est igitur omnia divinae providentiae subiacere. 77. Furthermore just as divine knowledge, according to what has been set down, must extend to the least of things, so it is necessary that the care of divine providence should enfold all things. For in all things the good is to be found in a certain order, according as things help one another and are ordered to an end. Just as every being is derived from the First Being Who is His own act of being, so it is necessary that every good be derived from the First ‘Good Who is goodness itself. Therefore the order of individuals is derived from the first and pure Truth, from which, however, something is derived according to its manner, namely, in an intelligible way. And in this the nature of providence consists, that an order be established by an understanding being in the things that are subject to its providence. Therefore all things must be subject to the divine providence. Adhuc. Primum movens immobile, quod Deus est, omnium motionum principium est, sicut et primum ens est omnis esse principium. In causis autem per se ordinatis tanto aliquid magis est causa, quanto in ordine causarum prior est, cum ipsa aliis conferat quod causae sint. Deus igitur omnium motionum vehementius causa est quam etiam singulares causae moventes. Non est autem alicuius causa Deus nisi sicut intelligens, cum sua substantia sit suum intelligere, ut per supra posita Aristotelis verba patet. Unumquodque autem agit per modum suae substantiae. Deus igitur per suum intellectum omnia movet ad proprios fines. Hoc autem est providere. Omnia igitur divinae providentiae subsunt. Further, the First Unmoved Mover, Who is God, is the source of all motions, just as the First Being is the source of all beings. In essentially ordered causes, something is by so much more a cause, according as it is prior in the order of causes, since it confers on others that they be causes. Therefore according to this, God is more strongly the cause of all motions than are the individual moving causes themselves. Now God is the cause of something only as understanding, since His substance is His understanding, as is clear from the words of Aristotle mentioned above. Each thing, however, acts according to the mode of its substance. Therefore God moves all things to their proper ends through His intellect and this is providence. Therefore all things are subject to divine providence. Amplius. Sic sunt res in universo dispositae sicut optimum est eas esse, eo quod omnia ex summa bonitate dependent. Melius est autem aliqua esse ordinata per se quam quod per accidens ordinentur: est igitur totius universi ordo non per accidens, sed per se. Hoc autem requiritur ad hoc quod aliqua per se ordinentur, quod primi intentio feratur usque ad ultimum. Si enim primum intendat secundum movere et eius intentio ulterius non feratur, secundum vero moveat tertium, hoc erit praeter intentionem primi moventis. Erit igitur talis ordo per accidens. Oportet igitur quod primi moventis et ordinantis intentio, scilicet Dei, non solum usque ad quaedam entium procedat, sed usque ad ultima. Omnia igitur eius providentiae subsunt. 78. Moreover, things are arranged in the universe in the best way because all of them depend on the highest goodness. But it is better for certain things to be ordered essentially rather than accidentally. Therefore the order of the whole universe is not accidental but essential. But that certain things be ordered essentially, it is required that the intention of the First Cause be directed even to the last. For if the First Cause intends to move the second, and Its intention goes no further, if the second then moves the third, this will be outside the intention of the First Mover; therefore such an order will be accidental. Consequently the intention of the First Mover and Orderer, namely God, must extend not only to certain beings but even to the very last ones. Therefore all things are subject to His providence. Item. Quod causae et effectui convenit, eminentius invenitur in causa quam in effectu; a causa enim in effectum derivatur. Quidquid igitur in inferioribus causis existens, primae omnium causae attribuitur, excellentissime convenit ei. Oportet autem aliquam providentiam Deo attribuere; alioquin universum casu ageretur. Oportet igitur divinam providentiam perfectissimam esse. Likewise, that which befits a cause and an effect is found more eminently in the cause than in the effect for it flows into the effect from the cause. Accordingly anything that is found in lower causes and is attributed to the First Cause of all, belongs to it in a most excellent way. But some providence must be attributed to God, or otherwise the universe would be moved by chance. Therefore divine providence must be most perfect. Sunt autem in providentia duo consideranda: scilicet dispositio, et dispositorum executio: in quibus quodammodo diversa ratio perfectionis invenitur. Nam in dispositione tanto perfectior est providentia, quanto providens magis singula mente considerare et ordinare potest: unde et omnes operativae artes tanto perfectius habentur, quanto quisque singula potest magis coniectare. Circa executionem vero tanto videtur esse providentia perfectior, quanto providens per plura media et instrumenta agens universalius movet. Divina igitur providentia habet dispositionem intelligibilem omnium et singulorum; exequitur vero disposita per plurimas et varias causas: inter quas spirituales substantiae, quas Angelos dicimus, primae causae propinquiores existentes, universalius divinam providentiam exequuntur. Sunt igitur Angeli universales executores providentiae divinae: unde signanter Angeli, idest nuntii, nominantur. Nuntiorum enim est (exequi) quae a domino disponuntur. 79. Two things, however, must be considered in providence: These are disposition and the execution of what has been disposed in which, in a way, a different kind of perfection is found. For in disposition, providence is the more perfect as the one providing is more able with his mind to consider and order individual things. Accordingly, all operative arts are considered the more perfect as each one of them is more able to join together singulars.With respect to execution, however, providence seems to be the more perfect according as the one providing moves as a more universal agent through more intermediaries and instruments. Therefore, divine providence has an intelligible disposition of each and every thing but it executes what it disposes through many and varied causes. Among these, the spiritual substances whom we call angels, because they are closer to the First Cause, carry out the divine providence in a more universal way. Accordingly, the angels are the universal executors of the divine providence; whence they are pointedly called “angels”, that is, “messengers”, for it belongs to messengers to carry out what God has disposed.
Caput 17
De errore Manichaeorum circa substantias spiritualesCHAPTER XVI
THE ERROR OF THE MANICHEANS CONCERNING THE AFOREMENTIONED POINTS AND ITS REFUTATIONOmnes autem praedictos errores Manichaeorum error transcendit, qui in omnibus praedictis articulis graviter erraverunt. 86. All the preceding errors were surpassed by the error of the Manicheans, who erred gravely in all the aforementioned points of doctrine. Primo namque rerum originem non in unum, sed in duo creationis principia reduxerunt: quorum unum dicebant esse auctorem bonorum, aliud vero auctorem malorum. First of all, they reduced the origin of things not to one but to two, principles of creation. They said that one of these was the author of good, while the other was the author of evils. Secundo erraverunt circa conditionem naturae ipsorum. Posuerunt enim utrumque principium corporale: auctorem quidem bonorum dicentes esse quamdam lucem corpoream infinitam vim intelligendi habentem; auctorem vero malorum dixerunt esse quasdam corporales tenebras infinitas. Secondly, they erred concerning the condition of the nature of these principles. For they posited both principles to be corporeal, saying that the author of good things was a certain infinite corporeal light with a power of understanding. But they said that certain infinite corporeal darknesses were the author of evils. Tertio vero erraverant per consequens in rerum gubernatione, non constituentes omnia sub uno principatu, sed sub contrariis. Haec autem quae praedicta sunt expressam continent falsitatem, ut potest videri per singula. Thirdly, they erred as a consequence, in the government of things, in a manner establishing all things not under one dominion but under contraries. These notions which we have just set down, contain a manifest falsity as can be seen if we take them up one by one. Primo namque penitus irrationale est ut malorum ponatur esse aliquod primum principium, quasi contrarium summo bono. Nihil enim potest esse activum nisi inquantum est ens actu, quia unumquodque tale alterum agit, quale ipsum est: rursumque ex hoc aliquid agitur quod actu fit. 87. In the first place, it is completely irrational that something should be posited as the first principle of evils as contrary to the highest good. For nothing can be active except insofar as it is a being in act because each being produces something else like itself; and furthermore, a thing is produced in order to be actually. Unumquodque autem ex hoc bonum dicimus quod actum et perfectionem propriam consequitur; malum autem ex hoc quod debito actu et perfectione privatur. Sicut vita est corporis bonum: vivit enim corpus secundum animam, quae est perfectio et actus ipsius; unde et mors malum corporis dicitur, per quam corpus anima privatur. Nihil igitur agit neque agitur nisi inquantum bonum est. Now we call each thing “good” because it achieves act and its proper perfection; and it is evil because it is deprived of its due act and perfection. For example, life is a good of the body, for the body lives according to the soul, which is its perfection and its act. Hence, death, through which the body is deprived of the soul, is called an evil of the body. Nothing therefore acts or is done except insofar as it is good. Inquantum vero unumquodque malum est, intantum deficit in hoc quod perfecte agatur vel agat; sicut domum malam fieri dicimus, si ad debitam perfectionem non perducatur; et aedificatorem malum dicimus, si in arte aedificandi deficiat. Neque igitur malum, inquantum huiusmodi, principium activum habet, neque principium activum esse potest, sed consequitur ex defectu alicuius agentis. However, insofar as anything is evil, to that extent it falls short of being done perfectly or of acting perfectly. For example, we say that a house is badly built if it is not brought through to its due perfection, and we call a builder “bad” if he falls short in the art of building. Therefore evil as such neither has an active principle nor can it be an active principle, but follows from a defect of some agent. Secundo vero impossibile est corpus aliquod intellectum esse, aut vim intellectivam habere. Intellectus enim neque corpus est neque corporis actus, alioquin non esset omnium cognoscitivus, ut probat philosophus in tertio de anima. Si igitur primum principium confitentur vim intellectivam habere, quod sentiunt omnes qui de Deo loquuntur, impossibile est primum principium esse aliquid corporale. 88. In the second place, it is impossible for any body to be intellective or to have an intellective power. For the intellect is neither a body nor is it the act of a body; otherwise, it would not know all things, as the Philosopher proves in the third book of On The Soul. Therefore if they admit that the First Principle has intellective power — which is held by all who speak of God it is impossible for the First Principle to be something corporeal. Tertio vero manifestum est quod bonum habet finis rationem: hoc enim bonum dicimus in quod appetitus tendit. Omnis autem gubernatio est secundum ordinem in aliquem finem, secundum cuius rationem ea quae sunt ad finem ordinantur in ipsum. Omnis igitur gubernatio est secundum rationem boni. Non potest igitur esse nec gubernatio nec principatus aliquis seu regnum mali inquantum est malum. Frustra igitur ponunt duo regna vel principatus, unum bonorum, aliud autem malorum. 89. Thirdly, it is clear that the good has the nature of an end, for we call that thing good, towards which the appetite tends. All government however is according to an order to some end, and according to the nature of this order, the things that are directed to the end are ordered to it. Now all government is according to the nature of good. Therefore evil as evil cannot have a government or a dominion or rulership. In vain, therefore do they posit two kingdoms or governments, one of the good and the other of the evil. Videtur autem hic error provenisse, sicut et alii supradicti, ex eo quod ea quae circa particulares causas consideraverunt, conati sunt in universalem rerum causam transferre. Viderunt enim particulares effectus contrarios ex contrariis particularibus causis procedere, sicut quod ignis calefacit, aqua vero infrigidat: unde crediderunt quod hic processus a contrariis effectibus in contrarias causas non deficiat usque ad prima rerum principia. Et quia omnia contraria contineri videntur sub bono et malo, inquantum contrariorum semper unum est deficiens, ut nigrum et amarum; aliud vero perfectum, ut dulce et album: ideo aestimaverunt quod prima omnium activa principia sint bonum et malum. This error like those mentioned above seems to have come about because the Manicheans tried to transfer to the universal cause of things, what we find among particular causes. They saw particular contrary effects proceed from particular contrary causes, for example that fire heats and water causes cold. Hence, they believed that this process from contrary effects to contrary causes holds right up to the first principles of things. And because all contraries are seen to be contained under good and evil, insofar as one of two contraries is always deficient, for example, the black and the bitter, and the other is realized, as the sweet and the white, for this reason they thought that good and evil are the first active principles of all things. Sed manifeste defecerunt in considerando contrariorum naturam. Non enim contraria omnino diversa sunt, sed secundum aliquid quidem conveniunt, secundum aliquid autem differunt. Conveniunt enim in genere, differunt autem secundum specificas differentias. Sicut igitur contrariorum sunt contrariae causae propriae, secundum quod specificis differentiis differunt, ita eorum oportet esse unam causam communem totius generis in quo conveniunt. Causa autem communis prior est et superior propriis causis, quanto enim est aliqua causa superior, tanto virtus eius maior et ad plura se extendens. Relinquitur igitur contraria non esse prima rerum activa principia, sed omnium esse unam primam causam activam. 90. But they manifestly failed in considering the nature of contraries. For contraries are not altogether diverse, but they agree in one respect and differ in another. For they agree in genus and they differ according to specific differences. Therefore, just as there are contrary proximate causes of contraries, so far as they differ by their specific differences, so they have one common cause of the whole genus in which they agree. A common cause, however, is prior to and higher than the proper causes. For the higher a cause is, by so much is its power greater and reaching out to more effects. It remains, therefore, that contraries are not the first active principles of things but that there is one active cause of all things.
Caput 19
De conditione spiritualium substantiarumCHAPTER XVIII
WHAT MUST BE HELD CONCERNING THE CONDITION OF THE ANGELS’ NATUREDeinde considerare oportet quid de conditione spiritualium substantiarum secundum Catholicae doctrinae sententiam sit tenendum. 98. Next, we must consider what must be held concerning the condition of spiritual substances according to the opinion of Catholic teaching. Fuerunt igitur quidam qui Angelos putaverunt corporeos esse vel ex materia et forma esse compositos; quod quidem sensisse videtur Origenes in primo periarchon, ubi dicit: solius Dei, idest patris et filii et spiritus sancti, naturae id proprium est ut sine materiali substantia et absque ulla corporeae adiectionis societate intelligatur existere. Et ad hoc quidem quod Angelos corporeos ponerent, movere potuerunt eos verba Scripturae quae quaedam corporalia Angelis attribuere videtur, cum eos et in loco corporali esse pronuntiet: secundum illud Matthaei XVIII, 10: Angeli eorum in caelis semper vident faciem patris mei qui in caelis est; et eos moveri asserat, secundum illud Isaiae VI, 6: volavit ad me unus de Seraphim; et quod est amplius, eos figura corporali describat, sicut ibidem de Seraphim dicitur: sex alae uni et sex alae alteri; et de Gabriele dicitur Dan. VI, ecce vir unus vestitus lineis, et renes eius accincti auro obrizo, et corpus eius quasi chrysolitus, et cetera quae ad haec pertinentia ibidem subduntur. There were certain thinkers who thought that the angels were corporeal or composed of matter and form. Origen seems to have held this opinion in the Peri Archon where he says, “It is proper to the nature of God alone, that is, of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, that it be understood to exist without material substance and without any association of a corporeal adjunct.” The words of Sacred Scripture, which seems to attribute certain corporeal characteristics to angels and which pronounces the angels as being with corporeal things in a corporeal place, could have moved these thinkers to posit the angels as being corporeal: — According to the words of Matthew 18:10: “Their angels in heaven always see the face of my Father Who is in heaven.” And Scripture asserts them to be moved, according to the words of Isaiah (6:6,2), “And one of the seraphim flew to me.” And what is more, that it should describe them as having a corporeal form, just as is said in the same place of the seraphim, “The one bad six wings and the other had six wings”. And it is said about Gabriel in Daniel 10:5-6: “Behold a man clothed in linen, and his loins were girded with the finest gold... And his body was like the chrysolite,” — and other points which are pertinent to these are described in the same place. Quod autem in Angelis etsi non sint corporei, sit tamen in eis compositio formae et materiae: ex quibus rationibus accipere volunt, supra iam diximus. Sed quod Angeli incorporei sint, canonicae Scripturae auctoritate probatur, quae eos spiritus nominat. Dicitur enim in Psalmo CIII, 4: qui facit Angelos suos spiritus; et apostolus dicit ad Hebraeos I, 14, de Angelis loquens: omnes sunt administratorii spiritus, in ministerium missi propter eos qui hereditatem capiunt salutis. Consuevit autem Scriptura nomine spiritus aliquid incorporeum designare, secundum illud Ioan. IV, 24: spiritus est Deus, et eos qui adorant eum, in spiritu et veritate adorare oportet; et Isaiae XXXI, 3: Aegyptus, homo, et non Deus; et equi eorum caro, et non spiritus. 99. Furthermore, we have already stated above, on the basis of arguments they may wish to hold, that there is in the angels a composition of form and matter, even though they are not corporeal. But that the angels are incorporeal, is proved from the authority of Sacred Scripture, which calls them “spirits”. For it is said in the Psalm (103:4): “You make your angels spirit.” And the Apostle in speaking of the angels, says to the Hebrews (1:14): “All are ministering spirits, but to minister for them, who shall receive the inheritance of salvation.” Scripture, however, was accustomed to designate something corporeal by the name of “spirit” according to the words of John 4:24: “God is a spirit and they who adore Him, must adore Him in spirit and in truth”; and according to the words of Isaiah 31:3: “Egypt is man and not God: and their horses, flesh and not spirit.” Sic igitur consequens est, secundum sacrae Scripturae sententiam, Angelos incorporeos esse. Si quis autem diligenter velit verba sacrae Scripturae inspicere, ex eisdem accipere poterit eos immateriales esse: nominat enim eos sacra Scriptura quasdam virtutes. Dicitur enim in Psalmo CII, 20-21: benedicite domino omnes Angeli, et postea subditur: benedicite domino omnes virtutes eius; et Luc. XXI, 26, dicitur: virtutes caelorum movebuntur, quod de sanctis Angelis omnes doctores exponunt. Quod autem materiale est, non est virtus, sed habet virtutem; sicut non est essentia, sed habens essentiam; sequitur enim virtus essentiam. Non est autem homo sua humanitas, neque sua virtus. Similiter autem neque aliquid aliud ex materia et forma compositum. Relinquitur igitur secundum intentionem Scripturae Angelos immateriales esse. Therefore it is unfitting according to the view of Sacred Scripture, that angels should be corporeal. If, however, one should wish to examine diligently the words of Sacred Scripture, he will be able to gather from them that the angels are immaterial, for Sacred Scripture calls them certain powers. For it is said in the Psalm (102:20,21): “Bless the Lord, all ye His angels”, and later it is added, “Bless the Lord all His powers.” And it is said in Luke 21:26: “For the powers of the heavens shall be moved,” which all the doctors apply to the holy angels. Furthermore, that which is material is not a power but it has power, just as it is not an essence but it has essence, for power follows upon essence. For neither is man his humanity nor is he his power; and the same is the case with every other composite of matter and form. It remains, therefore, that according to the intention of the Scriptures, angels are immaterial. Utrumque autem horum expresse Dionysii verbis astruitur, qui in quarto capite de divinis nominibus de Angelis loquens dicit quod intellectuales substantiae ab universis corruptione et morte et materia et generatione mundae existunt, et sicut incorporales et immateriales intelliguntur. In primo etiam capitulo caelestis hierarchiae dicit quod divina dispositio immateriales Angelorum hierarchias materialibus figuris varias tradidit; et in secundo capitulo eiusdem libri quaerit, quare sacri doctores ad corporalem formationem incorporalium scilicet Angelorum, venientes, non figuraverunt ea pretiosissimis figuris, sed immaterialibus substantiis et deiformibus simplicitatibus terrenas figuras circumposuerunt. 100. Furthermore, both of these points are expressly ascribed to the words of Dionysius who, speaking of the angels, says in the fourth chapter of On the Divine Names that “the intellectual substances exist free from all corruption and death and matter and generation and are understood to be incorporeal and immaterial.” He likewise says in the first chapter of the Celestial Hierarchy that the divine government made certain material figures to stand for the various immaterial hierarchies of angels. And in the second chapter of the same book he asks why the Sacred Doctors, coming to the corporeal representation of incorporeal beings, i.e., the angels, did not picture them with the most resplendent figures but gave earthly figures to immaterial and Godlike simple beings. Ex quibus omnibus patet hanc fuisse Dionysii sententiam quod Angeli sunt immateriales et simplices substantiae. Quod etiam ex hoc patet quod frequenter eos nominat caelestes intellectus, seu divinas mentes. Intellectus autem et mens aliquid incorporeum et immateriale est, ut philosophus probat in tertio de anima. Augustinus etiam dicit in secundo super Genesim ad litteram quod primo die quo lux facta est, conditio spiritualis et intellectualis creaturae lucis appellatione intimatur, in qua natura intelliguntur omnes sancti Angeli atque virtutes. Damascenus etiam dicit quod Angelus est substantia intellectualis et incorporea. Sed dubitationem facit quod postea subdit: incorporeus autem et immaterialis dicitur quantum ad nos: omne enim comparatum ad Deum, grossum et materiale invenitur. Quod ad hoc inducitur ne aestimetur Angelus propter suam incorporeitatem et immaterialitatem divinam simplicitatem aequare. It is clear from all these words that Dionysius’ opinion was that the angels are immaterial and simple substances. This is likewise clear from the fact that he frequently calls them celestial intellects or divine minds. The intellect or the mind, however, is something incorporeal and immaterial, as the Philosopher proves in Book III of On the Soul. Augustine likewise says in the second book of the Literal Commentary on Genesis that on the first day when the light was made, the condition of the spiritual and intellectual creature is announced by the name of “light”, in which nature are understood all the holy angels and powers. Damascene likewise says that the angel is “an intellectual and incorporeal substance.” But what he later adds creates a doubt, “It is called an incorporeal and immaterial nature with reference to us, for everything compared to God is found to be coarse and material.” This point is introduced so that the angel, because of his incorporeity and immateriality would not be considered to be equal to the simplicity of the divine substance. Corporales vero figurae seu formae quae in Scriptura sacra interdum Angelis attribuuntur, per quamdam similitudinem sunt intelligenda: quia, sicut dicit Dionysius primo capitulo caelestis hierarchiae: non est possibile nostrae menti ad immaterialem illam sursum excitari caelestium hierarchiarum et imitationem et contemplationem, nisi secundum se materiali manuductione utatur; sicut et de ipso Deo multa corporalia in Scripturis per quamdam similitudinem dicuntur; unde in decimoquinto capite caelestis hierarchiae Dionysius exponit quid spirituale significetur in Angelis per omnes huiusmodi corporales figuras. Nec solum huiusmodi formas corporeas per similitudinem de Angelis asserit dici, sed etiam ea quae pertinent ad affectionem sensitivi appetitus, ut per hoc detur intelligi quod non solum Angeli non sunt corpora, sed etiam non sunt spiritus corporibus uniti, quae sensificando perficiant, ut sic in eis inveniantur operationes animae sensitivae. 101. The corporeal shapes or forms, however, which are sometimes attributed to the angels in Sacred Scripture must be understood in the manner of a likeness because, as Dionysius says in the first chapter of the Celestial Hierarchy, “It is not possible for our mind to be raised up to the immaterial imitation and contemplation of the celestial hierarchies, unless in accord with its nature, it makes use of some material guidance”; — just as many corporeal things are said about God in the Scriptures through a certain likeness. Accordingly, Dionysius expounds in the fifteenth chapter of the Celestial Hierarchy what spiritual thing might be signified in the angels through all such corporeal figures. He asserts that not only corporeal forms of such a kind are predicated of the angels by likeness, but also, these things which pertain to the affection of the sensitive appetite, so that thereby, we might be given to understand not only that angels are not bodies, but likewise, that they are not spirits united to bodies that they perfect with sense life so that, thus, there maybe found in them operations of the sensitive soul. Dicit enim in secundo capitulo caelestis hierarchiae, quod furor irrationabilibus ex passibili motu ingignitur; sed in Angelis furibundum demonstrat virilem ipsorum rationabilitatem. Et similiter dicit quod concupiscentia in eis significat amorem divinum. Cui convenienter Augustinus dicit in nono de Civ. Dei, quod sancti Angeli sine ira puniunt quos accipiunt aeterna Dei lege puniendos; et miseris sine miseriae compassione subveniunt; et periclitantibus eis quos diligunt, sine timore opitulantur; et tamen istarum nomina passionum consuetudine locutionis humanae etiam in eos usurpantur propter quamdam operum similitudinem, non propter affectionum infirmitatem. For he says in the second chapter of the Celestial Hierarchy “Rage is begotten in irrational beings from a passible movement, but in angels, the irascible must be understood in a different way, namely as showing — as I believe — their strength and reason.” Another translation has it thus, “But in angels, rage shows their strength of reason.” And in like manner, he says that concupiscence in the angels signifies a divine love. Agreeing with this, Augustine says in the ninth book of the City of God : “The holy angels punish without anger those whom they receive for punishment by the eternal law of God; they help the suffering without the compassion of pity; and when those whom they love fall in danger, they minister without fear; and yet, the names of these passions are applied to them from a habit of human speech because of a kind of likeness in works and not because of a weakness in affections.” Quod autem Angeli dicuntur esse in caelis aut in aliquibus aliis corporalibus locis, non est intelligendum quod sint in eis corporali modo, scilicet per contactum dimensivae quantitatis, sed modo spirituali per quemdam contactum virtutis. Proprius autem locus Angelorum est spiritualis, secundum quod Dionysius dicit, quinto capite de divinis nominibus, quod supremae spirituales substantiae sunt in vestibulis Trinitatis collocatae; et Basilius dicit in secundo Hexaemeron, quod sunt in luce, et laetitia spirituali. Et Gregorius Nyssenus dicit in libro de homine quod intelligibilia existentia in intelligibilibus locis sunt, aut enim in se ipsis sunt aut in superiacentibus intelligibilibus. Cum igitur in corpore dicatur intellectuale aliquid localiter esse, non ut in loco in corpore dicitur esse sed ut in habitudine et in eo quod adest, ut dicimus Deum esse in nobis; et post pauca subdit: cum igitur in habitudine fuerit intelligibile aliquod vel loci alicuius vel rei ut in loco existentis, abusivius dicimus illic id esse propter actum eius qui est illic, locum pro habitudine suscipientes. Cum enim deberemus dicere: illic agit, dicimus: illic est. Et hoc sequens Damascenus dixit quod Angelus ubi operatur ibi est. Augustinus etiam octavo super Gen. ad litteram dicit, quod spiritus creator movet conditum spiritum per tempus sine loco; movet autem corpus per tempus et locum. 102. Furthermore, that angels are said to be in the heavens or in some other corporeal place must not be understood that they might be in them in a corporeal manner, namely, through a contact of measurable quantity but in a spiritual manner through a certain contact of power. Now the proper place of the angels is spiritual according to what Dionysius says in the fifth chapter of On the Divine Names, “The highest spiritual substances are stationed on the threshold of the Trinity.” And Basil says in II Hexaemeron that “they are in spiritual light and joy.” And Gregory of Nyssa says in the book, On Man: “The existing intelligibles are in intelligible places for either they are in themselves or in superior intelligibles. Since, therefore, something intellectual is said to be locally in a body, it is said to be in a body not as in a place but in disposition and in the sense of being present, as we say that God is in us”. And after a few words he adds, “Since, therefore, there was something understandable in the disposition either of place or of some thing as existing in a place, we say by improper use, taking the place for the condition, that that is there because of the act of that which is there; since, ‘indeed, we should have said, ‘It acts there,’ we say ‘It is there’.” And following this, Damascene says that “where the angel acts, there he is.” Augustine likewise says in Book VIII of the Literal Commentary on Genesis that “the Creator spirit moves the created spirit through time and without place; He moves the body, however, through time and place.” Ex quibus omnibus datur intelligi quod Angeli non sunt in loco corporali modo sed quodam modo spirituali. Et quia eodem modo competit alicui moveri in loco et esse in loco, per consequens neque corporali modo Angeli moventur in loco, sed motus eorum qui exprimitur in Scripturis, si referatur ad locum corporalem, est accipiendus secundum successionem virtualis contactus ad loca diversa; vel est accipiendus secundum mysticam intelligentiam, sicut Dionysius, quarto capite de divinis nominibus dicit, quod moveri dicuntur divinae mentes circulariter quidem unitae illuminationibus pulchri et boni; in directum autem quando procedunt ad subiectorum providentiam; oblique autem quando providentes minus habentibus inegressibiliter manent circa Deum. 103. From all these arguments, we may understand that angels are in a place not in a corporeal but in a kind of spiritual manner. And because it befits a thing to be moved and to be in place in the same way, as a consequence, neither are angels moved in place in a corporeal manner; but rather, their movement, which is described in the Scriptures — if it is referred to a corporeal place — must be understood as a succession of contacts of power at diverse places; or it must be understood according to a mystical meaning, just as in the fourth chapter of On the Divine Names, Dionysius says: “The divine minds are said to be moved in a circular manner when they are united to the illuminations of the beautiful and the good; they are moved in a straight line, however, when they proceed to the providence of what is subject to them; then, they are moved obliquely, however, when in their providence over lesser beings, they remain fixed before God.” Ex his igitur manifestum est quid circa conditionem spiritualium substantiarum, idest Angelorum, sacri doctores tradiderint, asserentes eos incorporeos et immateriales esse. Therefore it is clear from these statements what the Sacred Doctors taught concerning the condition of the spiritual substances, that is, of the angels, when they asserted that the angels are incorporeal and immaterial.
Caput 20
De distinctione angelicorum spirituumCHAPTER XIX
ON THE DISTINCTION OF SPIRITUAL SUBSTANCES ACCORDING TO SACRED TEACHINGOportet autem consequenter considerare quid secundum sacram doctrinam de distinctione spirituum sit tenendum: ubi et primum considerationi occurrit differentia boni et mali. Est enim apud multos receptum, esse quosdam spiritus bonos, quosdam vero malos: quod et auctoritate sacrae Scripturae comprobatur. De bonis enim spiritibus dicitur Hebr. I, 14: omnes sunt administratorii spiritus, in ministerium missi, propter eos qui hereditatem capiunt salutis. De malis autem spiritibus dicitur, Matthaei XII, 43, 45: cum immundus spiritus exierit ab homine, ambulat per loca arida quaerens requiem, et non invenit; et postea subditur: tunc vadit, et assumit septem alios spiritus nequiores se. Et quamvis, ut Augustinus narrat in nono de Civ. Dei, quidam posuerunt et bonos et malos spiritus deos esse, et similiter bonos et malos Daemones nominari, quidam tamen melius deos non nisi bonos asserunt, quos nos Angelos dicimus, Daemones autem secundum communem usum loquendi non nisi in malo accipitur: quod, ut dicit, rationabiliter accidit. Daemones enim in Graeco a scientia nominantur quae sine caritate, secundum sententiam apostoli, per superbiam inflat. 104. Furthermore, we consequently consider next what we must hold according to Sacred Teaching concerning the distinction of spirits. Our first consideration is the difference between good and evil. For it has been accepted among many thinkers that certain spirits are good and certain others, evil. This is likewise proved by the authority of Sacred Scripture. For it is said about the good spirits in Hebrews 1:14: “They are all ministering spirits, sent to minister for them who receive the inheritance of salvation.” About the evil spirits, however, it is said in Matthew 12:43,45: “And when an unclean spirit is gone out of a man, he walks through dry places, seeking rest and finds none.” And afterwards it is added, “Then he goes and takes with him seven other spirits more wicked than himself.” And although, as Augustine narrates in the ninth book of On the City of God, certain thinkers posited both good and evil spirits to be gods, and likewise good and evil spirits to be called demons, nevertheless, others more correctly assert only the good spirits to be gods. These we call “angels”, whereas according to the received manner of speaking, “demons” are accepted only as evil. This distinction, as he says, is reasonable. For the demons are named from the word “science” in Greek, which, without charity, according to the opinion of the Apostle,5 puffs up through pride. Sed causa malitiae Daemonum non eadem ab omnibus assignatur. Quidam enim eos asserunt naturaliter malos tanquam a malo productos principio, sic etiam ut ipsorum natura sit mala: quod ad Manichaeorum errorem pertinet, ut patet ex dictis. Sed hunc errorem efficacissime Dionysius improbat, quarto capite de divinis nominibus, dicens: sed neque Daemones natura mali sunt. Quod probat, primo quidem, quia si naturaliter mali essent, simul oporteret dicere quod neque essent producti ex bono principio neque inter existentia computarentur, quia malum non est aliquid existens: nec si esset natura aliqua, causaretur a bono principio. 105. But the cause of the wickedness of the demons is not assigned by all thinkers in the same way. For some of them assert that demons are naturally evil, as having been produced by an evil principle and thus their nature must be evil — which is part and parcel of the error of the Manicheans, as is clear from what has been said. But Dionysius refutes this error most effectively in the fourth chapter of On the Divine Names when he says, “But neither are the demons evil by nature.” He proves this first, because if they were naturally evil, it would be necessary to say at one and the same time that neither had they been produced by a good principle nor should they be numbered among existing beings, since evil is not something existing, nor if there existed an evil nature, was it caused by a good principle. Secundo, quia si sunt naturaliter mali: aut sibi ipsis, aut aliis: si sibi ipsis, se ipsos corrumperent, quod est impossibile; malum enim rationem corruptivi habet. Si vero sunt mali aliis, oporteret quod ea quibus sunt mali, corrumperent. Quod autem est naturaliter tale, est omnibus tale, et omnino tale. Sequeretur ergo quod omnia, et omnino corrumperent; quod est impossibile, tum quia quaedam sunt incorruptibilia, quae corrumpi non possunt, tum quia ea etiam quae corrumpuntur, non totaliter corrumpuntur. Non igitur ipsa natura Daemonum est mala. In the second place, because if they are evil by nature, they are evil to themselves or to others: if to themselves, they would destroy themselves (which is impossible), since evil has the nature of something corruptive; but if they axe evil to others, then they would have to destroy those things to which they are evil. However, what is such by nature, must be completely such with respect to all. It would follow therefore that they would destroy all things and this completely. This is impossible, both because certain beings are incorruptible and cannot be destroyed and also because those which are destroyed, are not destroyed completely. Therefore the nature itself of the demons is not evil. Tertio, quia si essent naturaliter mali, non essent a Deo facti, quia bonum bona producit et subsistere facit; et hoc est impossibile, secundum id quod supra probatum est, quod oportet omnium Deum esse principium. In the third place, if they were naturally evil, they would not have been made by God because good produces good effects and makes them subsist. This is impossible according to that which has been proved above namely, that God must be the source of all things. Quarto, quia si Daemones semper eodem modo se habent, non sunt mali: quod enim est semper idem, boni est proprium. Si autem non semper mali, non natura mali. In the fourth place, because if the demons are always disposed in the same way, they are not evil, for that which is always the same, belongs to the good. If, however, they are not always evil, they are not evil by nature. Quinto, quia non sunt omnino expertes boni, secundum quod sunt, et vivunt, et intelligunt, et aliquod bonum desiderant. In the fifth place, they are not completely devoid of good, for according as they are and live and have understanding, they desire some good. Fuerunt autem alii ponentes Daemones naturaliter malos, non quia eorum natura sit mala, sed quia habent quamdam inclinationem naturalem ad malum, sicut Augustinus, decimo de civitate Dei introducit Porphyrium dicentem in epistola ad Anebontem quosdam opinari esse quoddam spirituum genus, cui exaudire sit proprium, natura fallax, omniforme, multimodum, simulans deos et Daemones, et ipsas animas defunctorum. Quae quidem opinio veritatem habere non potest, si ponatur Daemones incorporeos esse, et intellectus quosdam separatos. Cum enim omnis natura bona sit, impossibile est quod natura aliqua habeat inclinationem ad malum nisi sub ratione particularis boni. Nihil enim prohibet aliquid quod est particulariter bonum alicui naturae, intantum dici malum inquantum repugnat perfectioni nobilioris naturae, sicut furiosum esse, quoddam bonum est cani, quod tamen malum est homini rationem habenti. Possibile tamen est in homine secundum sensibilem et corporalem naturam, in qua cum brutis communicat, esse quamdam inclinationem ad furorem, qui est homini malum. Sed hoc de intellectuali natura dici non potest, quia intellectus ordinem habet ad bonum commune. Unde impossibile est in Daemonibus inveniri naturalem inclinationem ad malum, si essent pure intellectuales non habentes admixtionem naturae corporeae. 106. Now there were others who held that the demons were naturally evil, not because their nature is evil, but because they have a certain natural inclination to evil, as Augustine advances in the tenth book of On the City of God through Porphyry, who says in the Epistle to Anebontes: “Some men thought that there is a certain class of spirits which it is proper to obey and which is deceitful by nature in all forms and in many ways, imitating the gods and demons and the very souls of the dead.” This opinion cannot have any truth if it be posited that demons are incorporeal and certain separate intellects. For, since every nature is good, it is impossible that some nature should have an inclination to evil, except under the character of some particular good. For nothing prevents some thing which is good in a particular manner, to be called “bad” with respect to a certain nature, insofar as it is opposed to the perfection of a higher nature; just as to be raging is a certain good with respect to a dog - nevertheless, it is an evil with respect to man who has reason. Yet it is possible that there should be in man, according to his sensible and corporeal nature which he shares with brutes, a certain inclination to raging which is evil for man. But this cannot be said of an intellectual nature because the intellect has an order to the good in general. Accordingly, it is impossible for a natural inclination to evil to be found in demons, if they are purely intellectual and have no admixture of a corporeal nature. Sciendum est ergo quod Platonici posuerunt, ut etiam supra dictum est, Daemones esse animalia quaedam corporea, habentia intellectum; et inquantum habent corpoream et sensitivam naturam, sunt variis animae passionibus subiecti, sicut et homines, ex quibus inclinantur ad malum. Unde Apuleius in libro de Deo Socratis definiens Daemones, dixit eos esse genere animalia, animo passiva, mente rationalia, corpore aerea, tempore aeterna, et sicut ipse dicit, subiecta est mens Daemonum passionibus libidinum, formidinum, irarum, atque huiusmodi ceteris. Sic ergo Daemones etiam loco discernunt a diis, quos Angelos dicimus, aerea loca Daemonibus attribuentes, aetherea vero Angelis, sive diis. 107. It must be known, therefore, that the Platonists posited, as has likewise been said above, that the demons are certain corporeal animals which have an intellect. And inasmuch as they have a corporeal and sensible nature, they are subject to various passions of the soul, just as men are subject to passions, which incline them towards evil. Accordingly, when Apuleius was defining the demons in the book, On the God of Socrates he said that they are “animals in genus, passible in soul, rational in mind, airy in body, eternal in time.” And just as he himself says: “The mind of the demons is subject to the passions of lusts, fears, and angers and all other such things. Therefore the demons are likewise locally separated from the gods — whom we call angels — attributing the airy places to the demons but the ethereal ones to the angels or gods.” Hanc autem positionem quantum ad aliquid aliqui Ecclesiae doctores sequuntur. Augustinus enim III super Genes. ad litteram videtur dicere, vel sub dubio relinquere, quod Daemones aerea sunt animalia quoniam corporum aereorum natura vigent, et propterea morte non dissolvuntur, quia praevalet in eis elementum quod ad faciendum quam ad patiendum est aptius, scilicet aer. Et hoc idem in pluribus aliis locis dicit. Sed et Dionysius videtur in Daemonibus ponere ea quae ad sensibilem animam pertinent: dicit enim quarto capite de divinis nominibus, quod est in Daemonibus malum, furor irrationabilis, demens concupiscentia et phantasia proterva. Manifestum est autem phantasiam et concupiscentiam et iram sive furorem, non ad intellectum, sed ad sensitivae partem animae pertinere. Sed et quantum ad locum quidam cum eis consenserunt, putantes Daemones non caelestes vel supercaelestes Angelos fuisse, ut Augustinus narrat in tertio super Gen. ad litteram. Sed et Damascenus dicit in secundo libro Daemones ex his angelicis virtutibus fuisse qui terrestri ordini praeerant. Sed et apostolus ad Ephes. II, 2, nominat: Diabolum principem potestatis aeris huius. Certain of the Doctors of the Church follow this position in some respect. For in the third book of the Literal Commentary On Genesis, Augustine seems to say or to leave unsettled that the demons are airy animals because they have the nature of airy bodies; and, for that reason, they are not destroyed by death, because there prevails in them an element, namely air, which is quite suitable both for acting as well as being acted upon — and he says the same thing in several other places. And Dionysius seems to posit in demons those attributes which belong to a sensible soul; for he says in the fourth chapter of On the Divine Names that there is in demons an evil — “an irrational rage, a mad concupiscence, and wanton fancy.” And it is clear that fancy and concupiscence and anger or rage pertain not to the intellect but to a part of the sensitive soul. And with respect to place, certain doctors agreed with these thinkers because they did not consider the demons to be either celestial or super-celestial angels, as Augustine relates in the third book of the Literal Commentary on Genesis. And Damascene says in the Second Book that the demons were among the angelic powers which were in command of the earthly order. And the Apostle in Ephesians (2:2) calls the devil a “prince of the power of this air.” Sed occurrit hic aliud consideratione dignum. Cum enim unicuique speciei sit attributa materia secundum convenientiam suae formae, non videtur esse possibile quod in tota aliqua specie sit naturalis inclinatio ad id quod est malum illi speciei secundum rationem propriae formae; sicut non omnibus hominibus inest naturalis inclinatio ad immoderantiam concupiscentiae sive irae. Sic igitur non est possibile omnes Daemones habere naturalem inclinationem ad fallaciam et ad alia mala, etiam si omnes essent unius speciei. Multo minus ergo si singuli essent in singulis speciebus; quamvis, si sint corporei, nihil impedire videatur plures sub una specie contineri: poterit enim secundum diversitatem materiae diversitas individuorum unius speciei causari. Oportebit igitur dicere quod non omnes nec semper fuerunt mali, sed aliqui eorum mali esse inceperunt proprio arbitrio, passionum inclinationem sequentes. Unde et Dionysius dicit quod aversio, scilicet a Deo, est ipsis Daemonibus malum, et convenientius ipsis excessus, quia per superbiam ultra se ipsos sunt elati; et postea subdit quaedam ad poenam pertinentia, sicut non consecutio finis ultimi, et imperfectio per carentiam debitae perfectionis, et impotentia consequendi quod naturaliter desiderant, et infirmitas virtutis conservantis naturalem in eis ordinem revocantem a malo. 108. But something presents itself here which is worthy of consideration. For, since matter is attributed to each species according to the suitability of its form, it does not seem possible that there should be in a whole of a given species a natural inclination to that which is evil for that species according to the nature of its proper form; just as there is not present in all men, a natural inclination to the immoderation of concupiscence or anger. Therefore, it is not possible that all demons should have a natural inclination to deception and to other evils, even if they were all of one species. Much less ‘ therefore, if there should be individuals in individual species; although if they are corporeal, nothing seems to prevent many of them from being contained under one species; for a diversity of individuals of one species could be caused according to a diversity of matter. Therefore we shall have to say that the demons were not always evil but some of them began to be evil, when by their own choice, they followed the inclination of the passions. And accordingly, Dionysius says in the fourth chapter of On the Divine Names that “aversion”, namely from God, “is an evil for the demons themselves, and it is a forsaking of those things which are fitting to them because they were carried away by pride beyond themselves.” And later on, he adds certain remarks pertaining to punishment as “not reaching the ultimate end” and imperfection through a lack of a due perfection, and “impotence” of pursuing that which they desire by nature and an “infirmity” of the power conserving in them, a natural order, calling them back from evil. Augustinus etiam dicit in tertio super Genes. ad litteram, quod transgressores Angeli ante transgressionem suam fuerunt in superiori parte aeris propinqua caelo cum principe suo nunc Diabolo, tunc Archangelo, manifeste exprimens per transgressionem quamdam eos esse malos factos. Sed et Damascenus dicit in secundo libro, quod Diabolus non natura malus factus est, sed bonus existens et in bono genitus, liberi sui arbitrii electione versus est. Hoc insuper et Origenes in primo periarchon, et Augustinus in XI de civitate Dei, auctoritatibus sacrae Scripturae confirmant, inducentes id quod habetur Isaiae XIV, 12, dictum Diabolo sub similitudine regis Babylonis: quomodo cecidisti, Lucifer, qui mane oriebaris?; Et Ezechielis XXVIII, 12 ss., ad eum dicitur in persona regis Tyri: tu signaculum similitudinis, plenus sapientia, perfectus decore, in deliciis Paradisi Dei fuisti; et postea subditur: perfectus in viis tuis a die conditionis tuae, donec inventa est iniquitas in te. Solvit Augustinus ibidem quod dicitur Ioannis VIII, 44: ille homicida erat ab initio, et in veritate non stetit; et quod in canonica Ioannis dicitur, quod Diabolus ab initio peccat, referens hoc ad initium quo incepit peccare, vel ad initium conditionis humanae, quod deceptum hominem spiritualiter occidit. 109. Augustine likewise says in the third book of the Literal Commentary On Genesis that the transgressing angels were before their transgression, along with their leader, now a devil and formerly an archangel, in the higher part of the air near the heaven. He gives us clearly to understand that through their transgression, some of the angels were made evil. And Damascene says in the second book, “The devil was not created evil in nature but, existing as good and begotten in the good, he used the election of his own choice.” In addition, both Origen in I Peri Archon and Augustine in Book XI of On the City of God confirm this with texts of the Sacred Scriptures, when they introduce what is contained in Isaiah 14:12 about the devil under the likeness of the king of Babylon, “How have you fallen, O Lucifer, who rose in the morning?” And in Ezechiel 28:12,13,15 it is said to him in the person of the king of Tyre, “Seal of resemblance, full of wisdom, and perfect in beauty, you were in the pleasures of the paradise of God.” And afterwards, it is added, “You were perfect in your ways from the day of your creation, until iniquity was found in you.” In the same place, Augustine resolves what is said in John 8:44: “He was a murderer from the beginning, and he stood not in the truth”; and what is said in the canonical Epistle of St. John (1 Jn 3:8) that “the devil sinned from the beginning,” referring this to the “beginning” when he began to sin, or to the “beginning” of the human state when he killed man spiritually after having deceived him. Huic autem sententiae consonare videtur Platonicorum opinio, qui Daemonum quosdam bonos quosdam malos dicunt, quasi eos proprio arbitrio bonos vel malos factos. Unde et Plotinus ulterius procedens dixit animas hominum Daemones esse et ex hominibus fieri Lares, si meriti boni sunt, Lemures autem si mali, seu Larvas; Manes autem deos dici, si incertum est bonorum eos seu malorum esse meritorum, sicut Augustinus introducit nono de civitate Dei. Quod quidem quantum ad hoc praemissae sanctorum assertioni concordat, quod pro meritis bonis vel malis aliquos Daemones bonos vel malos esse asserunt; quamvis non sit nostrae consuetudinis quod bonos spiritus Daemones, sed Angelos nominemus. 110. Furthermore, the opinion of the Platonists, who say that certain demons are good and others are evil — as if having been made good or evil by their own free choice — seems to agree with this opinion. Accordingly, Plotinus, proceeding further, says that the souls of men become demons and the Lares are made of men if the latter are of good merit; the Lemures or Larvae, however, if they are of evil merit, and they are called Manes, if it is uncertain whether they are of good or evil merit, as Augustine sets forth in IX of On the City of God. This opinion, agrees with the aforementioned position of the saints in this that the latter assert some demons to be good and others evil because of good or evil merits, although it is not customary for us to call the good spirits “demons” but rather “angels.” Quantum vero ad hoc quod dixit animas hominum mortuorum fieri Daemones, est erronea eius positio. Unde Chrysostomus dicit exponens id quod habetur Matthaei VIII, 28 quod duo habentes Daemonia exibant de monumentis: per hoc (inquit) quod de monumentis exibant perniciosum dogma imponere volebant, quod animae morientium Daemones fiunt. Unde et multi aruspicum occiderunt pueros ut animam eorum cooperantem haberent. Propter quod et daemoniaci clamant: quoniam anima illius ego sum. Non est autem anima defuncti quae clamat, sed Daemon effingit ut decipiat audientes: si enim in alterius corpus animam mortui possibile esset intrare, multo magis in corpus suum. Sed neque habet rationem iniqua passam animam cooperari iniqua sibi facienti; neque etiam rationabile est animam a corpore separatam hic iam oberrare. Iustorum enim animae in manu Dei sunt: sed et quae peccatorum sunt, confestim hinc abducuntur, ut manifestum est ex Lazaro et divite. Nec tamen putandum est Plotinum in hoc a Platonicorum opinione deviasse, ponentium Daemones esse aerea corpora, quod animas hominum post mortem fieri Daemones aestimabat; quia etiam animae hominum secundum Platonicorum opinionem praeter ista corpora corruptibilia habent quaedam aetherea corpora, quibus semper etiam post horum sensibilium corporum dissolutionem quasi incorruptibilibus uniuntur. Unde Proclus dicit in libro divinarum coelementationum: omnis anima participabilis corpore utitur primo perpetuo et habente hypostasim ingenerabilem et incorruptibilem. Et sic animae a corporibus separatae secundum eos aerea animalia esse non desinunt. As to what he says, namely that the souls of the dead become demons, his position is in error. Accordingly, Chrysostom, expounding on what is contained in Matthew 8:28 that two men possessed with devils came out of the sepulchres says, “Through this fact, namely that they were going out of the sepulchres, they wanted to impose a pernicious doctrine, that the souls of the dying become demons. Accordingly, many soothsayers killed children so that they might have their cooperating soul. And because of this, many demoniacs shout that ‘I am that one’s soul.’ However, it is not the dead person’s soul which shouts, but the demon pretends so that he might deceive the hearers. For if it were possible for the soul of one dead to enter the body of another, it would be much more possible for it to enter its own body. Nor is it reasonable for a soul suffering iniquities to cooperate with the one that brings iniquities on it. Nor likewise is it reasonable that a soul separated from the body should still be wandering here. ‘The souls of the just are in the hand of God’ (Wis 3:1). But those which are of sinners are led away from here at once, as is evident from Lazarus and Dives.” Nevertheless, we must not think that in this respect, Plotinus deviated from the opinion of the Platonists who posited the demons to be airy bodies — namely, because Plotinus thought that the souls of men become demons after death — for according to the Platonists’ opinion, even the souls of men have, over and above these corruptible bodies, certain ethereal bodies to which they are always joined as to something incorruptible, even after the dissolution of these sensible bodies. Accordingly, Proclus says in the Book of the Divine Elementations that “every soul capable of participating, uses the first and perpetual body and one having an ungenerated and incorruptible hypostasis.” And thus, according to them, the souls separated from the bodies, do not cease to be airy animals. Sed secundum aliorum sanctorum sententiam, Daemones quos malos Angelos dicimus non solum fuerunt de inferiori Angelorum ordine sed etiam de superioribus ordinibus, quos incorporeos et immateriales esse ostendimus, ita quod inter eos unus est qui summus omnium fuit. Unde Gregorius in quadam homilia, exponens illud Ezech. XXVIII, 13: omnis lapis pretiosus operimentum eius, dicit quod princeps malorum Angelorum in aliorum Angelorum comparatione ceteris clarior fuit. Et in hoc consentire videtur illis qui deorum quosdam bonos quosdam malos esse asserebant, secundum quod dii Angeli nominantur. Unde et Iob IV, 18, dicitur: ecce qui serviunt ei non sunt stabiles, et in Angelis suis reperit pravitatem. Sed hoc multas difficultates habet. In substantia enim incorporea et intellectuali nullus appetitus esse videtur nisi intellectivus, qui quidem est simpliciter boni, ut per philosophum patet in decimosecundo metaphysicae. Nullus autem efficitur malus ex hoc quod eius intellectus tendit in hoc quod est simpliciter bonum, sed ex hoc quod tendit in aliquid quod est secundum quid bonum, ac si esset simpliciter bonum. Non ergo videtur esse possibile quod proprio appetitu aliqua incorporea et intellectualis substantia mala efficiatur. 111. But according to the opinion of other Saints, the demons, whom we call evil angels, not only came from a lower order of angels but also from the higher orders, whom we have shown to be incorporeal and immaterial, so that among them, there was one who was the highest of all. Accordingly, Gregory explaining in a certain homily the words of Ezechiel 28:13 “Every precious stone has covering,” says that the leader of the evil angels was, in comparison with the other angels, more brilliant than the rest. And in this respect, he seems to agree with those who asserted some demons to be good and others to be evil, according to which demons are called angels. And therefore it is said in Job 4:18: “Behold they who serve him are not steadfast, and in his angels he found wickedness.” But this presents many difficulties. For in an incorporeal and intellectual substance, there seems to be no appetite except the intellectual, which is of that which is absolutely good, as appears through the Philosopher in XII Metaphysics. Now no one is made evil from the fact that his intellect tends toward that which is good absolutely, but from the fact that it tends toward a qualifiedly good thing, as though it were absolutely good. Therefore it does not seem possible that an incorporeal and intellectual substance should be made evil by its own appetite. Rursus. Appetitus esse non potest nisi boni, vel apparentis boni; bonum enim est quod omnia appetunt. Ex hoc autem quod aliquis verum bonum appetit, non efficitur malus. Oportet igitur in omni eo qui per proprium appetitum malus efficitur, quod appetat apparens bonum tanquam vere bonum. Hoc autem non potest esse nisi in suo iudicio fallatur: quod non videtur posse contingere in substantia incorporea intellectuali, quae falsae apprehensionis capax, ut videtur, esse non potest. Nam et in nobis quando intelligimus aliquid, falsitas esse non potest. Unde Augustinus dicit in Lib. 83 quaestionum, quod omnis qui fallitur, id in quo fallitur, non intelligit. Unde et circa ea quae proprie intellectu capimus, sicut circa prima principia, nullus decipi potest. Impossibile igitur videtur quod aliqua incorporea et intellectualis substantia per proprium appetitum mala fiat. 112. Again, appetite can be only of the good or of the seeming good, for the good is that which all beings seek and one is not rendered evil because he seeks the true good. Therefore, every individual who is made evil through his own appetite, must seek a seeming good as though it were truly good. This, however, cannot be unless he is deceived in his judgment, which does not seem capable of happening in an incorporeal and intellectual substance which, as it seems, cannot have a false apprehension. For even in our case, insofar as we understand something, there can be no falsity. Accordingly, Augustine says in the Book of Eighty-Three Questions “Everyone who is deceived, that, indeed, in which he is deceived, he does not understand.” And accordingly, concerning those things which we grasp properly by our intellect as well as concerning the first principles, no one can be deceived. Therefore it seems impossible that some incorporeal and intellectual substance should become evil through its own appetite. Adhuc. Substantia quae est intellectualis naturae, a corpore separata, necesse est quod sit omnino a tempore absoluta. Natura enim uniuscuiusque rei ex eius operatione deprehenditur: operationis vero ratio cognoscitur ex obiecto. Intelligibile autem, inquantum huiusmodi, neque est hic, neque nunc sed abstractum sicut a loci dimensionibus ita et a temporum successione. Ipsa igitur intellectualis operatio, si per se consideretur, oportet quod sicut est abstracta ab omni corporali dimensione ita etiam excedat omnem successionem temporalem. Et si alicui intellectuali operationi continuum vel tempus adiungatur, hoc non est nisi per accidens, sicut in nobis accidit, inquantum intellectus noster a phantasmatibus abstrahit intelligibiles species quas etiam in eis considerat. Quod in substantia incorporea et intellectuali locum habere non potest. Relinquitur igitur quod huiusmodi substantiae operatio, et per consequens substantia, omnino sit extra omnem temporalem successionem. Unde et Proclus dicit, quod omnis intellectus in aeternitate substantiam habet, et potentiam et operationem; et in Lib. de causis dicitur, quod intelligentia parificatur aeternitati. Quidquid igitur substantiis illis incorporeis et intellectualibus convenit, semper et absque successione convenit illis. Aut igitur semper fuerunt malae, quod est contra praemissa aut nequaquam malae fieri potuerunt. Amplius. 113. Furthermore, a substance which is of an intellectual nature and separate from a body must be absolutely free of time. For the nature of a thing is grasped from its operation while the character of an operation is known from its object. The intelligible, however, as such, is neither here nor now; but it is rather something abstracted both from the dimensions of place as well as from the succession of time. Therefore, the intellectual operation itself, if it be considered by itself, must likewise rise above all temporal succession just as it is abstracted from all corporeal dimension. And if a magnitude or time be joined to any intellectual operation, this happens only accidentally, just as it happens in our case, in so far as our intellect abstracts intelligible species from phantasms which it likewise considers in them-which can have no place in an incorporeal and intellectual substance. It remains therefore that the operation of such a substance and consequently the substance itself should be altogether outside all temporal succession. And accordingly, Proclus says, “Every intellect has in eternity, substance, and power, and operation.” And in the Book On Causes it is said that understanding “is on a par with eternity.” Therefore, whatever befits those incorporeal and intellectual substances, befits them always and without succession. Therefore either they were always evil — which is against what has been set down — or they could in no way have been made evil. Cum Deus sit ipsa essentia bonitatis, ut Dionysius dicit in primo capitulo de Div. Nom., necesse est quod tanto aliqua sint perfectius in participatione bonitatis firmata, quanto sunt Deo propinquiora. Manifestum est autem substantias intellectuales incorporeas supra omnia corpora esse. Si igitur suprema corpora, scilicet caelestia, non sunt susceptiva alicuius inordinationis vel mali, multo minus illae supercaelestes substantiae inordinationis et mali capaces esse non potuerunt. Unde et Dionysius dicit, quarto capite Cael. Hierar., quod sancti caelestium substantiarum ornatus super solum existentia, et irrationabiliter viventia, et ea quae secundum nos sunt rationalia, in participatione divinae traditionis sunt facti, et copiosiores habent ad Deum communiones, attenti manentes et semper ad superius, sicut est fas, in fortitudine divini et indeclinabilis amoris extenti. Hoc igitur videtur ordo rerum habere ut sicut inferiora corpora inordinationi et malo possunt esse subiecta, non autem caelestia corpora; ita etiam intellectus corporibus inferioribus uniti possunt subiici malo, non autem illae supercaelestes substantiae. Et hoc secuti esse videntur qui posuerunt Daemones quos malos Angelos dicimus, ex inferiori ordine et corporeos esse. 114. Moreover, since God is the very essence of goodness, as Dionysius says in the first chapter of On the Divine Names, it is necessary that the closer they are to God, the more firmly are certain beings strengthened in the participation of goodness. But it is evident that intellectual, incorporeal substances are above all bodies. If, therefore, the highest bodies, namely, the heavenly bodies are not receptive of any disorder or evil, much less could those super-celestial substances be capable of disorder and evil. Accordingly, Dionysius says in the fourth chapter of the Celestial Hierarchy, “The holy ornaments of the celestial substances participated in the divine teaching in greater measure than those beings that only exist, those that live with an irrational life and those that we call rational; and they have more abundant communications with God, with their minds fixed and, as is befitting, stretched towards what is above them in the power of a love that is divine and unswerving.” The order of things then seems to have this, that just as the lower bodies can be subject to disorder and evil but not the heavenly bodies, so likewise, the intellects joined to the lower bodies can be subject to evil, but not those super-celestial substances. And this view those thinkers seemed to follow who posited that the demons, who for us are the bad angels, are from a lower order and corporeal.